This article describes the design and execution of a systematic body of research using, as an example, the authors' own mnemonic strategy research. We describe the evolution of this research, from theory-driven laboratory research to long-term classroom applications of the effectiveness of curriculum-relevant mnemonic strategies. We argue that different experimental materials, different implementation procedures, and different experimental designs are necessary at different stages of the development of this research, and provide examples to support our positions. Finally, we describe the necessary contribution of other, independent researchers in supporting the external validity of the findings.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Atkinson, R.C. (1975). Mnemotechnics in second language learning. American Psychologist, 30, 821–828.
2.
Baker, J.G., Ceci, S.J., & Herrmann, D. (1987). Semantic structure and piocessing: Implications for the learning disabled child. In H.L. Swanson (Ed.), Memory and learning disabilities: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (pp. 83–109). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
3.
Becker, W.C., Engelmann, S., Carnine, D., & Maggs, A. (1982). Direct instruction technology: Making learning happen. In P. Karoly & J.J. Steffen (Eds.), Improving children's competence: Advances in child behavioral analysis and therapy (Vol. 1, pp. 151–204). Lexington, MA: Heath.
4.
Berry, J.K. (1986). Learning disabled children's use of mnemonic strategies for vocabulary learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
5.
Borkowski, J.G., & Buchel, F.P. (1983). Learning and memory strategies in the mentally retarded. In M. Pressley & J.R. Levin (Eds.), Cognitive strategy research: Psychological foundations (pp. 103–128). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ceci, S. (1985). A developmental study of learning disabilities and memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 202–221.
8.
Condus, M.M. (1984). Effects of the keyword mnemonic strategy on vocabulary acquisition and maintenance by learning disabled children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
9.
Condus, M.M., Marshall, K.J., & Miller, S.R. (1986). Effects of the keyword mnemonic strategy on vocabulary acquisition and maintenance by learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 609–613.
10.
Ehri, L.C., Deffner, N.D., & Wilce, L.S. (1984). Pictorial mnemonics for phonics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 880–893.
11.
Engelmann, S., & Carnine, D. (1982). Theory of instruction. New York: Irvington.
12.
Greene, G.M. (1988). A test of imagery mediation and control process deficit theoretical explanations of poor math fact memory in low achieving fourth grade students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Riverside.
13.
Hopkins, K.D. (1982). The unit of analysis: Group means versus individual observations. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 5–18.
14.
Jensen, A.R., & Rohwer, W.D., Jr. (1963). The effect of verbal mediation on the learning and retention of paired-associates by retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 68, 80–84.
15.
Johnson, C.W., Adams, M., & Bruning, R. (1985). Keywords and vocabulary acquisition: Some words of caution about words of assistance. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 33, 125–138.
16.
Kavale, K.A., & Forness, S. (1985). The science of learning disabilities. Boston: Little, Brown/College Hill.
17.
King, P. (1989). Keyword mnemonic and nonmnemonic vocabulary instruction with learning disabled students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville.
18.
Laufenberg, R. (1985). The effects of a transformational mnemonic strategy to facilitate digit span recall by mildly handicapped students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, Logan.
19.
Laufenberg, R., & Scruggs, T.E. (1986). The effects of a transformational mnemonic strategy to facilitate digit span recall by mildly handicapped students. Psychological Reports, 58, 811–820.
20.
Lebrato, M.T., & Ellis, N.R. (1974). Imagery mediation in paired-association learning by retarded and nonretarded subjects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 78, 704–713.
21.
Lorayne, J., & Lucas, J. (1974). The memory book. New York: Ballantine.
22.
Lovitt, T. (1988). Introduction to learning disabilities. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
23.
Machida, K., & Carlson, J. (1984). The effects of a verbal mediation strategy on cognitive processes in mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1382–1385.
24.
Mastropieri, M.A. (1983). Mnemonic strategy instruction with learning disabled adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
25.
Mastropieri, M.A. (1988). Using the keyword method. Teaching Exceptional Children, 20(2), 4–8.
26.
Mastropieri, M.A., Emerick, K., & Scruggs, T.E. (1988). Mnemonic instruction of science concepts. Behavioral Disorders, 14, 48–56.
27.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1987). Effective instruction for special education. Boston: Little, Brown/College Hill.
28.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1988). Increasing LD students' content area learning: Research implementation. Learning Disabilities Research, 4, 17–25.
29.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1989a). Constructing more meaningful relationships: Mnemonic instruction for special populations. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 83–111.
30.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1989b). Mnemonic social studies instruction: Classroom applications. Remedial and Special Education, 10, 40–46.
31.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1989c). Reconstructive elaborations: Strategies for adapting content area information. Academic Therapy, 24, 391–406.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (in press). Teaching students to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Boston: Brookline.
34.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Fulk, B.J.M. (in press). Teaching abstract vocabulary with the keyword method: Effects on recall and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities.
35.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Levin, J.R. (1985a). Maximizing what exceptional students can learn: A review of research on the keyword method and related mnemonic techniques. Remedial and Special Education, 6(2), 39–45.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Levin, J.R. (1986). Direct vs. mnemonic instruction: Relative benefits for exceptional learners. The Journal of Special Education, 19, 429–442.
38.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Levin, J. (1987a). Increasing LD students' recall of facts from expository prose. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 505–519.
39.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Levin, J.R. (1987b). Mnemonic strategies in special education. In M. McDaniel & M. Pressley (Eds.), Imaginal and mnemonic processes (pp. 358–376). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., McLoone, B.B., & Levin, J.R. (1985). Facilitating the acquisition of science classifications in LD students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 8, 299–309.
42.
McLoone, B.B. (1985). Memory strategy instruction and training with LD adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
43.
McLoone, B.B., Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & Zucker, S. (1986). Memory strategy instruction and training with LD adolescents. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 45–53.
44.
Miller, G.A., Galanter, F., & Pribham, K.H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
45.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
46.
Powell-Brown, D.A. (1989). Effects of mnemonic instruction upon retention of vocabulary with learning disabled children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Kansas City.
47.
Pressley, M., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989). Memory strategy instruction for learning disabilities: Present and future directions for researchers. Learning Disabilities Research, 4, 68–77.
48.
Rohwer, W.D., Jr., Raines, J.M., Eoff, J., & Wagner, M. (1977). The development of elaborative propensity in adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, 472–492.
49.
Scruggs, T.E. (1982). Verbal learning strategies in academically precocious youth. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
Scruggs, T.E., & Laufenberg, R. (1986). Transformational mnemonic strategies for retarded learners. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 21, 165–173.
52.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1985). Spontaneous verbal elaboration in gifted and non-gifted youths. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 9, 1–10.
53.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1988). Acquisition and transfer of learning strategies by gifted and non-gifted students. The Journal of Special Education, 22, 153–166.
54.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989a). Classroom applications of mnemonic instruction: Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University, Department of Educational Studies.
55.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989b). Mnemonic instruction of learning disabled students: A field-based evaluation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 119–125.
56.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989c). Reconstructive elaborations: A model for content area learning. American Educational Research Journal, 26, 311–327.
57.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Jorgensen, C., & Monson, J.A. (1986) Effective mnemonic strategies for gifted Jearners. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 9, 105–121.
58.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & Levin, J.R (1985). Vocabulary acquisition by mentally retarded students under direct and mnemonic instruction. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89, 546–551.
59.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & Levin, J.R. (1987). Implications of mnemonic-strategy research for theories of learning disabilities. In H.L. Swanson (Ed.), Memory and learning disabilities: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
60.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Levin, J.R., & Gaffney, J. (1985). Facilitating the acquisition of science facts in learning disabled students. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 575–586.
61.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Levin, J.R., McLoone, B.B, Gaffney, J.S., & Prater, M. (1985). Increasing content area learning: A comparison of mnemonic and visualspatial direct instruction. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 18–31.
62.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., McLoone, B.B., Levin, J.R., & Morrison, C. (1987). Mnemonic facilitation of LD students' recall of facts from expository prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 27–34.
63.
Shepherd, M.J., & Gelzheiser, L.M. (1987). Strategies and mnemonics go to school. In H.L. Swanson (Ed.), Memory and learning disabilities: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (pp. 245–262). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
64.
Taylor, S.C. (1981). The keyword mnemonic method for teaching vocabulary: Its use by learning disabled children with memory difficulties. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.
65.
Taylor, A.M., & Turnure, J.E. (1979). Imagery and verbal elaboration with retarded children: Effects on learning and memory. In N.R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency, psychological theory and research (pp. 659–697). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
66.
Thorndike, E.L. (1931). Human learning. New York: Century.
67.
Tolfa-Veit, D. (1985). Extended mnemonic instruction with learning disabled students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, Logan.
68.
Underwood, B.J., & Schulz, R.W. (1960). Meaningfulness and verbal learning. New York: Lippincott.
69.
Veit, D.T., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1986). Extended mnemonic instruction with learning disabled students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 300–308.
70.
Willott, P.C. (1982). The use of imagery as a mnemonic to teach basic multiplication facts to students with learning disabilities. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. West Virginia University, Morgantown.
71.
Yuen, P. (1985). Mnemonic instruction with menially retarded adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
