Eighteen studies were reviewed in which single-subject methodology was employed to evaluate treatment of social withdrawal in preschool children. Studies were systematically analyzed for a number of variables, including description of target subjects, type of intervention, length and intensity of intervention, primary intervenor, and several outcome variables, including percent of nonoverlapping data points from baseline to intervention phases and an overall outcome rating based on a 3-point scale. Studies were analyzed for covariation between outcomes and study characteristics. Results indicated that (a) interventions in which target subject interactive behaviors were directly reinforced and measured were the most successful interventions, (b) target subjects' unreinforced responses to trained peer confederates exceeded that of target subjects' unreinforced social initiations to confederate peers, (c) reinforced confederate peer social interactions exceeded unreinforced interactions, and (d) unreinforced modeling had little effect on subsequent social behavior. Furthermore, setting and skill generalization generally did not occur, maintenance was rarely assessed, and information about the characteristics of subjects included in such analyses was extremely limited. Implications for further research are given.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, K.E., Hart, B., Buell, J.S., Harris, F.R., & Wolf, M.M. (1964). Effects of social reinforcement on isolate behavior of a nursery school child. Child Development, 35, 511-518.
2.
Blacher-Dixon, J. (1981). Socialization influences on preschool handicapped children. In B. Keogh (Ed.), Advances in special education (Vol. 3, pp. 113-146). Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
3.
Casto, G., & Mastropieri, M.A. (in press). The efficacy of early intervention programs for handicapped children: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children.
4.
Casto, G., White, K.R., & Taylor, C. (1983). Final report, 1982 -1983 work scope. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Early Intervention Research Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 250 845)
5.
Day, R.M., Powell, T.H., DyLin, E.B., & Stowitschek, J.J. (1982). An evaluation of the effects of a social interaction training package on mentally handicapped preschool children. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded , 17, 125-130.
6.
Devoney, C., Guralnick, M.J., & Rubin, H. (1974). Integrating handicapped and nonhandicapped preschool children: Effects on social play. Childhood Education, 50, 360-364.
7.
Dunst, C.J., & Rheingrover, R.M. (1981). An analysis of the efficacy of infant intervention programs with organically handicapped children. Evaluation and Program Planning, 4, 287-323.
8.
Essa, E.L. (1978). The preschool: Setting for applied behavior analysis research. Review of Educational Research, 48, 537-575.
9.
Glass, G.V., McGaw, B., & Smith, M.L. (1981). Meta-analysis in social research. Beverly Hills: Sage.
10.
Goetz, E.M., Holmberg, M.C., & LeBlanc, J.M. (1975). Differential reinforcement of other behavior and noncontingent reinforcement as control procedures during the modification of a preschooler's compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8(1), 77-82.
11.
Guralnick, M.J. (1976). The value of integrating handicapped and nonhandicapped preschool children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46(2), 236-245.
12.
Hops, H. (1982). Social skills training for socially withdrawn/isolate children. In P. Karoly & J. J. Steffen (Eds.), Improving children's competence: Advances in child behavior analysis and therapy (Vol. 1, pp. 39-101). Lexington, MA: Heath.
13.
Kazdin, A.E. (1976). Statistical analysis for single-case experimental designs. In M. Hersen & D. H. Barlow, Single-case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change (pp. 265-316). New York: Pergamon Press.
14.
Kirby, F.D., & Toler, H.C. (1970). Modification of preschool isolate behavior: A case study. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 309-314.
15.
Levin, J.R., Marascuilo, L., & Hubert, L.J. (1978). N = nonparametric randomization tests. In T. R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Single-subject research: Strategies for evaluating change (pp. 167-196). New York: Academic Press.
16.
Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Casto, G. (1985). Early intervention for behaviorally disordered children: An integrative review. In R. B. Rutherford, Jr. (Ed.), Monographs in Behavior Disorders (Vol. 8, pp. 27-35). Tempe, AZ: Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders.
17.
Mastropieri, M.A., White, K.R., & Fecteau, F. (1984). Introduction to special education textbooks: What they say about the efficacy of early intervention. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Early Intervention Research Institute.
18.
McCain, L.J., & McCleary, R. (1979). The statistical analysis of the simple interrupted time-series quasi-experiment. In T. D. Cook & D. T. Campbell (Eds.), Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings . Chicago: Rand McNally.
19.
McGee, C.S., Kauffman, J.M., & Nussen, J.L. (1977). Children as therapeutic change agents: Reinforcement intervention paradigms. Review of Educational Research, 47, 451-477.
20.
McNulty, B.A., Smith, D.B., & Soper, E.W. (1983). Effectiveness of early special education for handicapped children. (Report commissioned by the Colorado General Assembly.)Colorado Department of Education.
21.
Means, J.R., & Merrens, M.R. (1969). Interpersonal training for an autistic child. Perceptual Motor Skills, 28, 972-974.
22.
Meehan, D.M., & Lyon, S.R. (1984). Assessment and facilitation of observational learning of handicapped preschoolers in group instructional arrangements. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, Early Childhood Research Institute.
23.
Miller, T.I. (1978). The effects of drug therapy on psychological disorders: A meta-analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder.
24.
Odom, S.L., & DeKlyen, M. (1984). Social withdrawal in childhood. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, Early Childhood Research Institute.
25.
Odom, S.L., Hoyson, M., Jamieson, B., & Strain, P.S. (1984). Increasing handicapped preschoolers' peer social interactions: Cross-setting and component analysis. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, Early Childhood Research Institute.
26.
Odom, S.L., & Strain, P.S. (1984a). Combining teacher antecedent and peer response for promoting reciprocal social interaction of autistic preschoolers: A comparison with peer-initiation interventions. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, Early Childhood Research Institute.
27.
Odom, S.L., & Strain, P.S. (1984b). Peer-mediated approaches to promoting children's social interaction: A review. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 54, 544-557.
28.
Parsonson, B.S., & Baer, D.M. (1978). The analysis and presentation of graphic data . In T. R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Single subject research: Strategies for evaluating change (pp. 101-166). New York: Academic Press.
29.
Peck, C.A., Apolloni, T., Cooke, T.P., & Raver, S.A. (1978). Teaching retarded preschoolers to imitate the free-play behavior of nonretarded classmates: Trained and generalized effects . The Journal of Special Education, 12, 195-207.
30.
Reisinger, J.J. (1978). Generalization of cooperative behavior across classroom situations. The Journal of Special Education, 12, 209-217.
31.
Rutherford, R.B., Jr. , & Nelson, J.M. (in press). Applied behavior analysis in education: Generalization and maintenance. In J. C. Witt, S. N. Eliott, & F. M. Gresham (Eds.), Handbook of behavior therapy in education. New York: Plenum Press.
32.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1984). Issues in generalization: Implications for special education. Psychology in the Schools , 21, 397-403.
33.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & Rutherford, R.B. , Jr. (1982, August). Effects of four intervention strategies in promoting setting generalization. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
34.
Siegel, S. (1956). Non-parametric statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
35.
Simeonsson, R.J., Cooper, D.H., & Schneider, A.P. (1982). A review and analysis of the effectiveness of early intervention programs. Pediatrics , 69, 635.
36.
Sindelar, P.T., & Wilson, R.J.1984). The potential effects of meta-analysis on special education practice. The Journal of Special Education, 18, 81-92.
37.
Stokes, T., & Baer, D. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.
38.
Strain, P.S., & Wiegerink, R. (1975). The social play of two behavior disordered preschool children during four activities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 3, 61-69.
39.
Tallmadge, G.K. (1977). Ideabook: The Joint Dissemination Review Panel . Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Education.
40.
Tawney, J.W., & Gast, D.L. (1984). Single subject research in special education. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
41.
White, K.R., & Casto, G. (1984). An integrative review of early intervention efficacy studies with at risk children: Implications for the handicapped. Analysis and intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 5, 177-201.
42.
White, K.W., Mastropieri, M.A., & Casto, G.W. (1984). An analysis of special education early childhood projects approved by the Joint Dissemination Review panel. Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, 9, 11-26.
