Recognizing that many youth with disabilities lack critical self-determination skills and that such deficits may be a contributing factor to disappointing postschool outcomes, educators and researchers have called for increased attention to promoting student self-determination in the early grades. The authors queried 891 elementary and middle school teachers regarding the extent to which they valued and provided instruction in seven self-determination skill domains. Educators generally perceived self-determination to be an important curricular priority, and the majority reported teaching self-determination skills at least sometimes in their classrooms. Special educators' ratings of overall importance were significantly higher than those of general educators. Middle school teachers reported providing self-determination instruction more frequently than elementary school teachers. These findings lend additional support to calls for promoting self-determination within the general curriculum in the earlier grades.
Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2005). Introduction to the special issue on self-determination: How far have we come? Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 30, 105-107.
2.
Agran, M., Snow, K., & Swaner, J. (1999). Teacher perceptions of self-determination: Benefits, characteristics, and strategies. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 293-301.
3.
Algozzine, B., Browder, D., Karvonen, M., Test, D.W., & Wood, W.M. (2001). Effects of interventions to promote self-determination for individuals with disabilities. Review of Educational Research , 71, 219-277.
4.
Browder, D. M., & Spooner, F. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching language arts, math, and science to students with significant cognitive disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
5.
Browder, D.M., Wakeman, S.Y., & Flowers, C. (2006). Assessment of progress in the general curriculum for students with disabilities. Theory Into Practice, 45, 249-259.
6.
Cameto, R., Levine, P., Wagner, M., & Marder, C. (2003). The emerging independence of youth with disabilities . In M. Wagner, C. Marder, J. Blackorby, R. Cameto, L. Newman, P. Levine, et al. (Eds.), The achievements of youth with disabilities during secondary school (pp. 6.1-6.22). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
7.
Carter, E.W., & Hughes, C. (2006). Including high school students with severe disabilities in general education classes: Perspectives of general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 31, 174-185.
8.
Carter, E.W., Lane, K.L., Pierson, M., & Glaeser, B. (2006). Self-determination skills of transition-age youth with emotional disturbances and learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72, 333-346.
9.
Carter, E.W., Lane, K.L., Pierson, M.R., & Stang, K.K. (in press). Promoting self-determination for transition-age youth: Views of high school general and special educators. Exceptional Children.
10.
Chambers, C.R., Wehmeyer, M.L., Saito, Y., Lida, K.M., Lee, Y., & Singh, V. (2007). Self-determination: What do we know? Where do we go?Exceptionality, 15, 3-15.
11.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.) (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
12.
Eisenman, L.T. (2007). Self-determination interventions: Building a foundation for school completion. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 2-8.
13.
Eisenman, L.T., & Chamberlin, M. (2001). Implementing self-determination activities: Lessons from schools. Remedial and Special Education , 22, 138-147.
14.
Erwin, E.J., & Brown, F. (2003). From theory to practice: A contextual framework for understanding self-determination in early childhood environments. Infants & Young Children, 16, 77-87.
15.
Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (2002). Preparing youth to exercise self-determination: Quality indicators of school environments that promote the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and beliefs related to self-determination. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 13, 113-118.
16.
Field, S.S., Martin, J.E., Miller, R.J., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M.L. (1998). Self-determination for persons with disabilities: A position statement of the Division on Career Development and Transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21, 113-128.
17.
Field, S., Sarver, M.D., & Shaw, S.F. (2003). Self-determination: A key to success in postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 339-349.
18.
Giangreco, M.F., & Broer, S.M. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 10-26.
19.
Giangreco, M.F., Halvorsen, A., Doyle, M.B., & Broer, S.M. (2004). Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Journal of Special Education Leadership , 17(2), 82-90.
20.
Gilberts, G.H., Agran, M., Hughes, C., & Wehmeyer, M. (2001). The effects of peer delivered self-monitoring strategies on the participation of students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 26, 25-36.
21.
Grigal, M., Neubert, D.A., Moon, M.S., & Graham, S. (2003). Self-determination for students with disabilities: Views of parents and teachers. Exceptional Children, 70, 97-112.
22.
Hoff, K.E., & DuPaul, G.J. (1998). Reducing disruptive behavior in general education classrooms: The use of self-management strategies. School Psychology Review, 27, 290-303.
23.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004).
24.
Karvonen, M., Test, D.W., Wood, W.M., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Putting self-determination into practice. Exceptional Children, 71, 23-41.
25.
Kerr, M.M., & Zigmond, N. (1986). What do high school teachers want? A study of expectations and standards. Education and Treatment of Children , 9, 239-249.
26.
Lachapelle, Y., Wehmeyer, M.L., Haelewyck, M.C., Courbois, Y., Keith, K.D., Schalock, R., et al. (2005). The relationship between quality of life and self-determination: An international study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49, 740-744.
27.
Lane, K.L. (2007). Identifying and supporting students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders within multi-level models: Data driven approaches to conducting secondary interventions with an academic emphasis . Education and Treatment of Children, 30, 1-30.
28.
Lane, K.L., Pierson, M.R., & Givner, C.C. (2004). Secondary teachers' views on social competence: Skills essential for success. The Journal of Special Education , 38, 174-186.
29.
Lane, K.L., Pierson, M.R., Stang, K.K., & Carter, E.W. (2008). Teacher expectations of students' classroom behavior: Do expectations vary as a function of school risk? Unpublished manuscript.
30.
Lee, S., Simpson, R.L., & Shogren, K.A. (2007). Effects and implications of self-management for students with autism: A meta-analysis. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22, 2-13.
31.
Martin, J.E., Mithaug, D.E., Cox, P., Peterson, L.Y., Van Dycke, J.L., & Cash, M.E. (2003). Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children , 69, 431-447.
32.
Mason, C., Field, S., & Sawilowsky, S. (2004). Implementation of self-determination activities and student participation in IEPs. Exceptional Children, 70, 441-451.
33.
Mithaug, D.E., Campeau, P.L., & Wolman, J.M. (2003). Assessing self-determination prospects among students with and without disabilities. In D. E. Mithaug , D. Mithaug, M. Agran, J. Martin, & M. L. Wehmeyer, (Eds.), Self-determined learning theory: Construction, verification, and evaluation (pp. 61-76). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
34.
Mooney, P., Ryan, J.B., Uhing, B.M., Reid, R., & Epstein, M.H. (2005). A review of self-management interventions targeting academic outcomes for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14, 203-331.
35.
No Child Left Behind Act, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
36.
Nunnally, J.C., & Bernstein, I.H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: McGraw-Hill.
37.
Palmer, S.B., & Wehmeyer, M.L. (2003). Promoting self-determination in early elementary school: Teaching self-regulated problem-solving and goal-setting skills. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 115-126.
38.
Powers, K.M., Gil-Kashiwabara, E., Geenen, S.J., Powers, L.E., Balandran, J., & Palmer, C. (2005). Mandates and effective transition planning practices reflected in IEPs. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals , 28, 47-59.
39.
Reid, R., Trout, A.L., & Schartz, M. (2005). Self-regulation interventions for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Exceptional Children , 71, 361-377.
40.
Sands, D.J., & Doll, B. (1996). Fostering self-determination is a developmental task. The Journal of Special Education, 30, 58-76.
41.
Sands, D. J., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (Eds.). (1996). Self-determination across the life span. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
42.
Sowers, J., & Powers, L. (1995). Enhancing the participation and independence of students with severe physical and multiple disabilities in performing community activities. Mental Retardation, 33, 209-220.
43.
Snyder, T.D., Dillow, S.A., & Hoffman, C.M. (2007). Digest of education statistics: 2006. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics .
44.
Sugai, G., Horner, R., & Gresham, F. (2002). Behaviorally effective school environments. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 315-350). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
45.
Test, D.W., Fowler, C.H., Brewer, D.M., & Wood, W.M. (2005). A content and methodological review of self-advocacy intervention studies. Exceptional Children, 72, 101-125.
46.
Test, D.W., Mason, C., Hughes, C., Konrad, M., Neale, M., & Wood, W.M. (2004). Student involvement in individualized education program meetings. Exceptional Children, 70, 391-412.
47.
Thoma, C.A., Nathanson, R., Baker, S.R., & Tamura, R. (2002). Self-determination: What do special educators know and where do they learn it? Remedial and Special Education , 23, 242-247.
48.
Turnbull, A., Edmonson, H., Griggs, P., Wickham, D., Sailor, W., Freeman, R., et al. (2002). A blueprint for schoolwide positive behavior support: Implementation of three components. Exceptional Children , 68, 377-402.
49.
U.S. Department of Education. (2006). Twenty-sixth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 2004. Washington, DC: Author.
50.
Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R., Garza, N., & Levine, P. (2005). After high school: A first look at the postschool experiences of youth with disabilities. Menlo Park, CA : SRI International.
51.
Wehmeyer, M.L. (2005). Self-determination and individuals with severe disabilities: Re-examining meanings and misinterpretations. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 30, 113-120.
52.
Wehmeyer, M.L., Abery, B., Mithaug, D.E., & Stancliffe, R.J. (2003). Theory in self-determination: Foundations for educational practice. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
53.
Wehmeyer, M.L., & Agran, M. (2006). Promoting access to the general curriculum for students with significant cognitive disabilities. In D. M. Browder & F. Spooner (Eds.), Teaching language arts, math, and science to students with significant cognitive disabilities (pp. 15-37). Baltimore, MD : Paul H. Brookes.
54.
Wehmeyer, M.L., Agran, M., & Hughes, C. (2000). A national survey of teachers' promotion of self-determination and student-directed learning. Journal of Special Education , 34, 58-68.
55.
Wehmeyer, M.L., & Field, S. (2007). Instructional and assessment strategies to promote the self-determination of students with disabilities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
56.
Wehmeyer, M.L., & Palmer, S.B. (2003). Adult outcomes for students with cognitive disabilities three years after high school: The impact of self-determination. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 38, 131-144.
57.
Wood, W.M., Fowler, C.H., Uphold, N., & Test, D.W. (2005). A review of self-determination interventions with individuals with severe disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 30, 121-146.
58.
Zhang, D. (2001). Self-determination and inclusion: Are students with mild mental retardation more self-determined in regular classrooms? Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities , 36, 357-362.
59.
Zhang, D., Wehmeyer, M.L., & Chen, L. (2005). Parent and teacher engagement in fostering the self-determination of students with disabilities: A comparison between the United States and the Republic of China. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 55-64.
60.
Zigmond, N. (2006). Twenty-four months after high school: Paths taken by youth diagnosed with severe emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14, 99-107.
