One of the most dramatic shifts in recent years has been consumers’ increased use of smartphones for making purchases and choices—but does using a smartphone influence what consumers choose? This article shows that, compared with using a personal computer (PC), making choices using a personal smartphone leads consumers to prefer more unique options. The authors theorize that because smartphones are considerably more personal and private than PCs, using them activates intimate self-knowledge and increases private self-focus, shifting attention toward individuating personal preferences, feelings, and inner states. Consequently, making choices using a personal smartphone, compared with a PC, tends to increase the preference for unique and self-expressive options. Six experiments and several replications examine the effects of personal smartphone use on the preference for unique options and test the underlying role of private self-focus. The findings have important implications for theories of self-focus, uniqueness seeking, and technology’s impact on consumers, as well as tangible implications for many online vendors, brands, and researchers who use mobile devices to interact with their respective audiences.
AndersenSusan M.ChenSerena (2002), “The Relational Self: An Interpersonal Social-Cognitive Theory,” Psychological Review, 109 (4), 619–45.
2.
AndrewsMichelleLuoXuemingFangZhengGhoseAnindya (2016), “Mobile Ad Effectiveness: Hyper-Contextual Targeting with Crowdedness,” Marketing Science, 35 (2), 218–33.
3.
ArielyDanLevavJonathan (2000), “Sequential Choice in Group Settings: Taking the Road Less Traveled and Less Enjoyed,” Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (3), 279–90.
BaldwinMark W. (1994), “Primed Relational Schemas as a Source of Self-Evaluative Reactions,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13 (4), 380–403.
6.
BarnesAaron J. (2020), “Culture and Personal Preferences: Implications for Decision Making, Information Processing, and Brand Equity,” unpublished dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
7.
BaumeisterRoy F. (1982), “A Self-Presentational View of Social Phenomena,” Psychological Bulletin, 91 (1), 3–26.
8.
BergerJonahHeathChip (2007), “Where Consumers Diverge from Others: Identity Signaling and Product Domains,” Journal of Consumer Research, 34 (2), 121–34.
9.
BussArnold H. (1980), Self-Consciousness and Social Anxiety. Freeman.
10.
BussDavid M.ScheierMichael F. (1976), “Self-Consciousness, Self-Awareness, and Self-Attribution,” Journal of Research in Personality, 10 (4), 463–68.
11.
CarverCharles S.ScheierMichael F. (1981), “Self-Consciousness and Reactance,” Journal of Research in Personality, 15 (1), 16–29.
12.
CaseyLogan S.ChandlerJesseLevineAdam SethProctorAndrewStrolovitchDara Z. (2017), “Intertemporal Differences Among MTurk Workers: Time-Based Sample Variations and Implications for Online Data Collection,” SAGE Open, 7 (2), https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017712774.
13.
ChangHannah H.HungIris W. (2018), “Mirror, Mirror on the Retail Wall: Self-Focused Attention Promotes Reliance on Feelings in Consumer Decisions,” Journal of Marketing Research, 55 (4), 586–99.
14.
CheekJonathan M.BriggsStephen R. (1982), “Self-Consciousness and Aspects of Identity,” Journal of Research in Personality, 16 (4), 401–08.
15.
ChenPing LingPaiChih Wei (2018), “Pedestrian Smartphone Overuse and Inattentional Blindness: An Observational Study in Taipei, Taiwan,” BMC Public Health, 18 (1), 1342.
16.
ClaytonRussell B.LeshnerGlennAlmondAnthony (2015), “The Extended iSelf: The Impact of iPhone Separation on Cognition, Emotion, and Physiology,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20 (2), 119–35.
Dagogo-JackSokiente W.ForehandMark R. (2018), “Egocentric Improvement Evaluations: Change in the Self as an Anchor for Brand Improvement Judgments,” Journal of Marketing Research, 55 (6), 934–50.
19.
DavisDeborahBrockTimothy C. (1975), “Use of First Person Pronouns as a Function of Increased Objective Self-Awareness and Performance Feedback,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11 (4), 381–88.
20.
De HaanEvertKannanP.K.VerhoefPeter C.WieselThorsten (2018), “Device Switching in Online Purchasing: Examining the Strategic Contingencies,” Journal of Marketing, 82 (5), 1–19.
21.
DienerEd (1979), “Deindividuation, Self-Awareness, and Disinhibition,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 (7), 1160–71.
22.
EidelmanScottSilviaPaul J. (2010), “Self-Focus and Stereotyping of the Self,” Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 13 (2), 263–73.
23.
EllisRobert J.HolmesJohn G. (1982), “Focus of Attention and Self-Evaluation in Social Interaction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43 (1), 67–77.
24.
FitzsimonsGráinne M.BarghJohn A. (2003), “Thinking of You: Nonconscious Pursuit of Interpersonal Goals Associated with Relationship Partners,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (1), 148–64.
25.
FitzsimonsGráinne M.ChartrandTanya L.FitzsimonsGavan J. (2008), “Automatic Effects of Brand Exposure on Motivated Behavior: How Apple Makes You ‘Think Different,’,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (1), 21–35.
26.
FörsterJensLibermanNira (2007), “Knowledge Activation,” in Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles, KruglanskiArie W.Tory HigginsE., eds. Guilford Press, 201–31.
27.
FromingWilliam J.CarverCharles S. (1981), “Divergent Influences of Private and Public Self-Consciousness in a Compliance Paradigm,” Journal of Research in Personality, 15 (2), 159–71.
28.
FromingWilliam J.WalkerG. RexLopyanKevin J. (1982), “Public and Private Self-Awareness: When Personal Attitudes Conflict with Societal Expectations,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18 (5), 476–87.
29.
GhoseAnindyaGoldfarbAviHanSang Pil (2013), “How Is the Mobile Internet Different? Search Costs and Local Activities,” Information Systems Research, 24 (3), 613–31.
30.
GibbonsFrederick X. (1990), “Self-Attention and Behavior: A Review and Theoretical Update,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23 (C), 249–303.
GoukensCarolineDewitteSiegfriedWarlopLuk (2009), “Me, Myself, and My Choices: The Influence of Private Self-Awareness on Choice,” Journal of Marketing Research, 46 (5), 682–92.
33.
GrewalDhruvAhlbomCarl-PhilipBeitelspacherLaurenNobleStephanie M.NordfältJens (2018), “In-Store Mobile Phone Use and Customer Shopping Behavior: Evidence from the Field,” Journal of Marketing, 82 (4), 102–26.
34.
GrewalLaurenStephenAndrew T. (2019), “In Mobile We Trust: The Effects of Mobile Versus Nonmobile Reviews on Consumer Purchase Intentions,” Journal of Marketing Research, 56 (5), 791–808.
35.
GriskeviciusVladasGoldsteinNoah J.MortensenChad R.CialdiniRobert B.KenrickDouglas T. (2006), “Going Along Versus Going Alone: When Fundamental Motives Facilitate Strategic (Non)Conformity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91 (2), 281–94.
36.
HatukaTaliTochEran (2016), “The Emergence of Portable Private-Personal Territory: Smartphones, Social Conduct and Public Spaces,” Urban Studies, 53 (10), 2192–2208.
37.
HayesAndrew F. (2013), An Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. Guilford Press.
38.
HullJay G.Van TreurenRonald R.AshfordSusan J.PropsomPamelaAndrusBruce W. (1988), “Self-Consciousness and the Processing of Self-Relevant Information,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (3), 452–65.
39.
HungIris W.WyerRobert S. (2011), “Shaping Consumer Imaginations: The Role of Self-Focused Attention in Product Evaluations,” Journal of Marketing Research, 48 (2), 381–92.
40.
HuttonDebra G.BaumeisterRoy F. (1992), “Self-Awareness and Attitude Change: Seeing Oneself on the Central Route to Persuasion,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18 (1), 68–75.
41.
IckesWilliamLaydenMary AnneBarnesRichard D. (1978), “Objective Self-Awareness and Individuation: An Empirical Link,” Journal of Personality, 46 (1), 146–61.
42.
JoinsonAdam N. (2001), “Self-Disclosure in Computer-Mediated Communication: The Role of Self-Awareness and Visual Anonymity,” European Journal of Social Psychology, 31 (2), 177–92.
43.
KayAaron C.WheelerS. ChristianBarghJohnRossLee (2004), “Material Priming: The Influence of Mundane Physical Objects on Situational Construal and Competitive Behavioral Choice,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 95 (1), 83–96.
44.
LeBoeufRobyn A.ShafirEldarBayukJulia Belyavsky (2010), “The Conflicting Choices of Alternating Selves,” Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 111 (1), 48–61.
45.
LeeSeung YunGreggAiden P.ParkSeong Hoon (2013), “The Person in the Purchase: Narcissistic Consumers Prefer Products That Positively Distinguish Them,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105 (2), 335–52.
46.
LevavJonathanZhuRui (2009), “Seeking Freedom Through Variety,” Journal of Consumer Research, 36 (4), 600–610.
47.
LinMing I.HuangYu Ping (2017), “The Impact of Walking While Using a Smartphone on Pedestrians’ Awareness of Roadside Events,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, 101, 87–96.
48.
LurieNicholas H.BergerJonahChenZoeyLiBeibeiLiuHongjuMasonCharlotte H., et al. (2018), “Everywhere and at All Times: Mobility, Consumer Decision-Making, and Choice,” Customer Needs and Solutions, 5 (1/2), 15–27.
49.
LurieNicholas H.RansbothamSamLiuHongju (2014), “The Characteristics and Perceived Value of Mobile Word of Mouth,” Marketing Science Institute Working Paper Series, Report No. 14-109.
50.
LynnMichaelHarrisJudy (1997), “Individual Differences in the Pursuit of Self-Uniqueness Through Consumption,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27 (21), 1861–83.
51.
MaimaranMichalSimonsonItamar (2011), “Multiple Routes to Self- Versus Other-Expression in Consumer Choice,” Journal of Marketing Research, 48 (4), 755–66.
52.
MathesonKimberlyZannaMark P. (1988), “The Impact of Computer-Mediated Communication on Self-Awareness,” Computers in Human Behavior, 4 (3), 221–33.
MelumadShiriInmanJ. JeffreyPhamMichel Tuan (2019), “Selectively Emotional: How Smartphone Use Changes User-Generated Content,” Journal of Marketing Research, 56 (2), 259–75.
55.
MelumadShiriMeyerRobert (2020), “Full Disclosure: How Smartphones Enhance Consumer Self-Disclosure,” Journal of Marketing, 84 (3), 28–45.
56.
MelumadShiriPhamMichel Tuan (2020), “The Smartphone as a Pacifying Technology,” Journal of Consumer Research, 47 (2), 237–55.
57.
MullenBrianMigdalMichael J.RozellDrew (2003), “Self-Awareness, Deindividuation, and Social Identity: Unraveling Theoretical Paradoxes by Filling Empirical Lacunae,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 (9), 1071–81.
58.
NailPaul R. (1986), “Toward an Integration of Some Models and Theories of Social Response,” Psychological Bulletin, 100 (2), 190–206.
59.
OakesMarkOnyperSerge (2017), “The Movement-Induced Self-Reference Effect: Enhancing Memorability Through Movement Toward the Self,” Cognitive Processing, 18 (3), 325–33.
60.
PahlSabineEiserJ. Richard (2006), “The Focus Effect and Self-Positivity in Ratings of Self-Other Similarity and Difference,” British Journal of Social Psychology, 45 (1), 107–16.
61.
ParkChang SupKayeBarbara K. (2019), “Smartphone and Self-Extension: Functionally, Anthropomorphically, and Ontologically Extending Self via the Smartphone,” Mobile Media & Communication, 7 (2), 215–31.
62.
ParkJane JeonginSelaAner (2018), “Not My Type: Why Affective Decision Makers Are Reluctant to Make Financial Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 45 (2), 298–319.
63.
PettyRichard E.DeMarreeKenneth G.BriñolPabloHorcajoJavierStrathmanAlan J. (2008), “Need for Cognition can Magnify or Attenuate Priming Effects in Social Judgment,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (7), 900–912.
64.
PhamMichel TuanGoukensCarolineLehmannDonald R.StuartJennifer Ames (2010), “Shaping Customer Satisfaction Through Self-Awareness Cues,” Journal of Marketing Research, 47 (5), 920–32.
65.
PitesaMarkoThauStefan (2013), “Compliant Sinners, Obstinate Saints: How Power and Self-Focus Determine the Effectiveness of Social Influences in Ethical Decision Making,” Academy of Management Journal, 56 (3), 635–58.
66.
Prentice-DunnStevenRogersRonald W. (1982), “Effects of Public and Private Self-Awareness on Deindividuation and Aggression,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43 (3), 503–13.
67.
PrenticeDeborah A. (1987), “Psychological Correspondence of Possessions, Attitudes, and Values,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (6), 993–1003.
RansbothamSamLurieNicholas H.LiuHongju (2019), “Creation and Consumption of Mobile Word of Mouth: How Are Mobile Reviews Different?” Marketing Science, 38 (5), 773–92.
70.
RaphaeliOritGoldsteinAnatFinkLior (2017), “Analyzing Online Consumer Behavior in Mobile and PC Devices: A Novel Web Usage Mining Approach,” Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 26, 1–12.
71.
SanteeRichard T.MaslachChristina (1982), “To Agree or Not to Agree: Personal Dissent amid Social Pressure to Conform,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42 (4), 690–700.
72.
ScheierMichael F.BussArnoldBussDavid M. (1978), “Self-Consciousness, Self-Report of Aggressiveness, and Aggression,” Journal of Research in Personality, 12 (2), 133–40.
73.
ScheierMichael F.CarverCharles S. (1980), “Private and Public Self-Attention, Resistance to Change, and Dissonance Reduction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39 (3), 390–405.
74.
ScheierMichael F.CarverCharles S. (1985), “The Self–Consciousness Scale: A Revised Version for Use with General Populations,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15 (8), 687–99.
75.
SelaAnerBergerJonahKimJoshua (2017), “How Self-Control Shapes the Meaning of Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research, 44 (4), 724–37.
76.
SelaAnerHadarLiatMorganSiânMaimaranMichal (2019), “Variety-Seeking and Perceived Expertise,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 29 (4), 671–79.
SelaAnerSimonsonItamarKivetzRan (2013), “Beating the Market: The Allure of Unintended Value,” Journal of Marketing Research, 50 (6), 691–705.
79.
ShavittSharon (1990), “The Role of Attitude Objects in Attitude Functions,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26 (2), 124–48.
80.
SilviaPaul J.AbeleAndrea E (2002), “Can Positive Affect Induce Self-Focused Attention? Methodological and Measurement Issues,” Cognition and Emotion, 16 (6), 845–53.
81.
SilviaPaul J.GendollaGuido H.E. (2001), “On Introspection and Self-Perception: Does Self-Focused Attention Enable Accurate Self-Knowledge?” Review of General Psychology, 5 (3), 241–69.
82.
SilviaPaul J.PhillipsAnn G. (2013), “Self-Awareness Without Awareness? Implicit Self-Focused Attention and Behavioral Self-Regulation,” Self and Identity, 12 (2), 114–27.
83.
SimonsonItamar (2005), “Determinants of Customers’ Responses to Customized Offers: Conceptual Framework and Research Propositions,” Journal of Marketing, 69 (1), 32–45.
84.
SnyderMarkDeBonoKenneth G. (1985), “Appeals to Image and Claims About Quality: Understanding the Psychology of Advertising,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49 (3), 586–97.
85.
SpencerSteven J.ZannaMark P.FongGeoffrey T. (2005), “Establishing a Causal Chain: Why Experiments Are Often More Effective Than Mediational Analyses in Examining Psychological Processes,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89 (6), 845–51.
WangRebecca Jen HuiMalthouseEdward C.KrishnamurthiLakshman (2015), “On the Go: How Mobile Shopping Affects Customer Purchase Behavior,” Journal of Retailing, 91 (2), 217–34.
91.
WegnerDaniel M.GiulianoToni (1983), “Social Awareness in Story Comprehension,” Social Cognition, 2 (1), 1–17.
92.
WheelerS. ChristianDeMarreeKenneth G.PettyRichard E. (2007), “Understanding the Role of the Self in Prime to Behavior Effects: The Active Self Account,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11 (3), 234–61.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
