From a neuropsychological perspective, this article summarizes research that addresses some of the developmental interactions of disabilities in reading, spelling, and mechanical arithmetic. The focus is on two subtypes of children with learning disabilities who exhibit equally impaired levels of arithmetic achievement, but with vastly different patterns of neuropsychological assets and deficits. Qualitative as well as quantitative analyses lead to the conclusion that one of these patterns of neuropsychological assets and deficits (i.e., the nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome; NLD) leads—at the same time and in much the same manner—to specific patterns of impairment in mechanical arithmetic and in psychosocial functioning. The other pattern (Group R-S) is found to lead to particular patterns of academic deficits (including arithmetic), but not to any particular level or type of psychosocial dysfunction. The manifestations of the NLD profile in various types of neurological disease, disorder, and dysfunction are also explored.
Brandys, C.F., & Rourke, B.P. (1991). Differential memory capacities in reading- and arithmetic-disabled children. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 73–96). New York: Guilford Press.
3.
Casey, J.E., Del Dotto, J.E., & Rourke, B.P. (1990). An empirical investigation of the NLD syndrome in a case of agenesis of the corpus callosum. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 29.
4.
Casey, J.E., Rourke, B.P., & Picard, E.M. (1991). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Age differences in neuropsychological, academic, and socioemotional functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 329–345.
5.
Del Dotto, J.E., Fisk, J.L., McFadden, G.T., & Rourke, B.P. (1991). Developmental analysis of children/adolescents with non-verbal learning disabilities: Long-term impact on personality adjustment and patterns of adaptive functioning. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 293–308). New York: Guilford Press.
6.
DeLuca, J.W., Rourke, B.P., & Del Dotto, J.E. (1991). Subtypes of arithmetic-disabled children: Cognitive and personality dimensions. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 180–219). New York: Guilford Press.
7.
Doehring, D.G. (1978). The tangled web of behavioral research on developmental dyslexia. In A.L. Benton & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge (pp. 125–135). New York: Oxford University Press.
8.
Fisk, J.L., & Rourke, B.P. (1979). Identification of subtypes of learning-disabled children at three age levels: A neuropsychological, multivariate approach. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1, 289–310.
9.
Fletcher, J.M. (1985). External validation of learning disability typologies. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 187–211). New York: Guilford Press.
10.
Fletcher, J.M., Bohan, T.P., Brandt, M.E., Brookshire, B.L., Beaver, S.R., Francis, D.J., Davidson, K.C., Thompson, N.M., & Miner, M.E. (1992). Cerebral white matter and cognition in hydrocephalic children. Archives of Neurology, 49, 818–824.
11.
Fletcher, J.M., & Copeland, D.R. (1988). Neurobehavioral effects of central nervous system prophylactic treatment of cancer in children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 10, 495–537.
12.
Fletcher, J.M., Francis, D.J., Thompson, N.M., Brookshire, B.L., Bohan, T.P., Landry, S.H., Davidson, K.C., & Miner, M.E. (1992). Verbal and nonverbal skill discrepancies in hydrocephalic children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 593–609.
13.
Fletcher, J.M., & Levin, H. (1988). Neurobehavioral effects of brain injury in children. In D.K. Routh (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (pp. 258–295). New York: Gullford Press.
14.
Fletcher, J.M., & Satz, P. (1985). Cluster analysis and the search for learning disability subtypes. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 40–64). New York: Guilford Press.
15.
Fuerst, D.R., Fisk, J.L., & Rourke, B.P. (1989). Psychosocial functioning of learning-disabled children: Replicability of statistically derived subtypes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 275–280.
16.
Fuerst, D.R., Fisk, J.L., & Rourke, B.P. (1990). Psychosocial functioning of learning-disabled children: Relations between WISC Verbal IQ-Performance IQ discrepancies and personality subtypes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 657–660.
17.
Golding-Kushner, K.J., Weller, G., & Shprintzen, R.J. (1985). Velo-cardio-facial syndrome: Language and psychological profiles. Journal of Craniofacial Genetics and Developmental Biology, 5, 259–266.
18.
Grunau, R.V.E., & Low, M.D. (1987). Cognitive and task-related EEC correlates of arithmetic performance in adolescents. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 9, 563–574.
19.
Harnadek, M.C.S., & Rourke, B.P. (1992). Discriminant validity of the NLD syndrome in children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 69.
20.
Jastak, J.F., & Jastak, S.R. (1965). The wide range achievement test. Wilmington, DE: Guidance Associates.
21.
Kinsbourne, M., & Warrington, E.K. (1963). The developmental Gerstmann syndrome. Archives of Neurology, 8, 490–501.
22.
Klove, H. (1963). Clinical neuropsychology. In F.M. Forster (Ed.), The medical clinics of North America (pp. 1647–1658). New York: Saunders.
23.
Knights, R.M., & Norwood, J.A. (1980). Revised smoothed normative data on the neuropsychological test battery for children. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Author.
24.
Korhonen, T.T. (1991). An empirical sub-grouping of Finnish learning-disabled children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 259–277.
25.
Loveland, K.A., Fletcher, J.M., & Bailey, V. (1990). Nonverbal communication of events in learning-disability subtypes. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 433–447.
26.
Lyon, G.R. (1985). Educational validation studies of learning disability subtypes. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 257–280). New York: Guilford Press.
27.
Lyon, G.R., & Flynn, J.M. (1991). Educational validation studies with subtypes of learning-disabled readers. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 223–242). New York: Guilford Press.
28.
Mattson, A.J., Sheer, D.E., & Fletcher, J.M. (1992). Electrophysiological evidence of lateralized disturbances in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 707–716.
29.
McCue, M., & Goldstein, G. (1991). Neuropsychological aspects of learning disability in adults. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 311–329). New York: Guilford Press.
30.
Morris, R., Blashfield, R., & Satz, P. (1986). Developmental classification of reading-disabled children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 8, 371–392.
31.
Morris, R.D., & Walter, L.W. (1991). Subtypes of arithmetic-disabled adults: Validating childhood findings. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 330–346). New York: Guilford Press.
32.
Ozols, E.J., & Rourke, B.P. (1985). Dimensions of social sensitivity in two types of learning-disabled children. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 281–301). New York: Guilford Press.
33.
Ozols, E.J., & Rourke, B.P. (1988). Characteristics of young learning-disabled children classified according to patterns of academic achievement: Auditory-perceptual and visual-perceptual disabilities. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 44–52.
34.
Ozols, E.J., & Rourke, B.P. (1991). Classification of young learning-disabled children according to patterns of academic achievement: Validity studies. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 97–123). New York: Guilford Press.
35.
Petrauskas, R.J., & Rourke, B.P. (1979). Identification of subtypes of retarded readers: A neuropsychological, multivariate approach. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1, 17–37.
36.
Piaget, J. (1954), The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books.
37.
Reitan, R.M., & Davison, L.A. (Eds.). (1974). Clinical neuropsychology: Current status and applications. New York: Wiley.
38.
Rourke, B.P. (1975). Brain-behavior relationships in children with learning disabilities. American Psychologist, 30, 911–920.
39.
Rourke, B.P. (1976a). Issues in the neuropsychological assessment of children with learning disabilities. Canadian Psychological Review, 17, 89–102.
40.
Rourke, B.P. (1976b). Reading retardation in children: Developmental lag or deficit? In R.M. Knights & D.J. Bakker (Eds.), Neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches (pp. 125–137). Baltimore: University Park Press.
41.
Rourke, B.P. (1978a). Neuropsychological research in reading retardation: A review. In A.L. Benton & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge (pp. 141–171). New York: Oxford University Press.
42.
Rourke, B.P. (1978b). Reading, spelling, arithmetic disabilities: A neuropsychologic perspective. In H.R. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. 4, pp. 97–120). New York: Grune & Stratton.
43.
Rourke, B.P. (1981). Neuropsychological assessment of children with learning disabilities. In S.B. Filskov & T.J. Boll (Eds.), Handbook of clinical neuropsychology (pp. 453–478). New York: Wiley-Interscience.
44.
Rourke, B.P. (1982). Central processing deficiencies in children: Toward a developmental neuropsychological model. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 4, 1–18.
45.
Rourke, B.P. (1983). Reading and spelling disabilities: A developmental neuropsychological perspective. In U. Kirk (Ed.), Neuropsychology of language, reading, and spelling (pp. 209–234). New York: Academic Press.
46.
Rourke, B.P. (1987). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: The final common pathway of white-matter disease/dysfunction?. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 1, 209–234.
47.
Rourke, B.P. (1988a). Socioemotional disturbances of learning disabled children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 801–810.
48.
Rourke, B.P. (1988b). The syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Developmental manifestations in neurological disease, disorder, and dysfunction. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2, 293–330.
49.
Rourke, B.P. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the model. New York: Guilford Press.
50.
Rourke, B.P. (Ed.). (1991). Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes. New York: Guilford Press.
51.
Rourke, B.P., Bakker, D.J., Fisk, J.L., & Strang, J.D. (1983). Child neuropsychology: An introduction to theory, research, and clinical practice. New York: Guilford Press.
52.
Rourke, B.P., Del Dotto, J.E., Rourke, S.B., & Casey, J.E. (1990). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and a case study. Journal of School Psychology, 28, 361–385.
53.
Rourke, B.P., Dietrich, D.M., & Young, G.C. (1973). Significance of WISC verbal-performance discrepancies for younger children with learning disabilities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 36, 275–282.
54.
Rourke, B.P., & Finlayson, M.A.J. (1978). Neuropsychological significance of variations in patterns of academic performance: Verbal and visual-spatial abilities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 121–133.
55.
Rourke, B.P., & Fisk, J.L. (1988). Subtypes of learning-disabled children: Implications for a neurodevelopmental model of differential hemispheric processing. In D.L. Molfese & S.J. Segalowitz (Eds.), Developmental implications of brain lateralization (pp. 547–565). New York: Guilford Press.
56.
Rourke, B.P., & Fisk, J.L. (1992). Adult presentations of learning disabilities. In R.F. White (Ed.), Clinical syndromes in adult neuropsychology: The practitioner's handbook. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
57.
Rourke, B.P., Fisk, J.L., & Strang, J.D. (1986). Neuropsychological assessment of children: A treatment-oriented approach. New York: Guilford Press.
58.
Rourke, B.P., & Fuerst, D.R. (1991). Learning disabilities and psychosocial functioning. New York: Guilford Press.
59.
Rourke, B.P., & Strang, J.D. (1978). Neuropsychological significance of variations in patterns of academic performance: Motor, psychomotor, and tactile-perceptual abilities. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 362–66.
60.
Rourke, B.P., & Strang, J.D. (1983). Subtypes of reading and arithmetical disabilities: A neuropsychological analysis. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Developmental neuropsychiatry (pp. 473–488). New York: Guilford Press.
61.
Rourke, B.P., & Telegdy, G.A. (1971). Lateralizing significance of WISC verbal-performance discrepancies for older children with learning disabilities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 875–883.
62.
Rourke, B.P., Young, G.C., & Flewelling, R.W. (1971). The relationships between WISC verbal-performance discrepancies and selected verbal, auditory-perceptual, visual-perceptual, and problem-solving abilities in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 475–479.
63.
Rourke, B.P., Young, G.C., & Leenaars, A. (1989). A childhood learning disability that predisposes those afflicted to adolescent and adult depression and suicide risk. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 169–175.
64.
Rourke, B.P., Young, G.C., Strang, J.D., & Russell, D.L. (1986). Adult outcomes of central processing deficiencies in childhood. In I. Grant & K.M. Adams (Eds.), Neuropsychological assessment in neuropsychiatric disorders: Clinical methods and empirical findings (pp. 244–267). New York: Oxford University Press.
65.
Rovet, J.F. (1990). Congenital hypothyroidism: Intellectual and neuropsychological functioning. In C.S. Holmes (Ed.), Psychoneuroendocrinology: Brain, behavior, and hormonal interactions (pp. 273–322). New York: Springer-Verlag.
66.
Rovet, J.F., Ehrlich, R.M., Czuchta, D., & Akler, M. (1993). Psychoeducational characteristics of children and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 7–22.
67.
Rovet, J., & Netley, C. (1982). Processing deficits in Turner's syndrome. Developmental Psychology, 18, 77–94.
68.
Shapiro, E.G., Lipton, M.E., & Krivit, W. (1992). White matter dysfunction and its neuropsychological correlates: A longitudinal study of a case of metachromatic leukodystrophy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 610–624.
69.
Share, D.L., Moffitt, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1988). Factors associated with arithmetic-and-reading disability and specific arithmetic disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 313–320.
70.
Siegel, L.S., & Heaven, R.K. (1986). Categorization of learning disabilities. In S.J. Ceci (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities (Vol. 1, pp. 95–121). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
71.
Stelmack, R.M., & Miles, J. (1990). The effect of picture priming on event-related potentials of normal and disabled readers during a word recognition memory task. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12, 887–903.
72.
Stevens, D.E., & Moffitt, T.E. (1988). Neuropsychological profile of an Asperger's syndrome case with exceptional calculating ability. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2, 228–238.
73.
Strang, J.D., & Rourke, B.P. (1983). Concept-formation/non-verbal reasoning abilities of children who exhibit specific academic problems with arithmetic. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 12, 33–39.
74.
Strang, J.D., & Rourke, B.P. (1985a). Adaptive behavior of children with specific arithmetic disabilities and associated neuropsychological abilities and deficits. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 302–328). New York: Guilford Press.
75.
Strang, J.D., & Rourke, B.P. (1985b). Arithmetic disability subtypes: The neuropsychological significance of specific arithmetical impairment in childhood. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 167–183). New York: Guilford Press.
76.
Streissguth, A.P., & LaDue, R.A. (1987). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Teratogenic causes of developmental disabilities. In S.R. Schroeder (Ed.), Toxic substances and mental retardation: Neurobehavioral toxicology and teratology (pp. 1–32). Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Deficiency.
77.
Szatmari, P., Tuff, L., Finlayson, M.A.J., & Bartolucci, G. (1990). Asperger's syndrome and autism: Neurocognitive aspects. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 130–136.
78.
Udwin, O., & Yule, W. (1991). A cognitive and behavioural phenotype in Williams syndrome. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 232–244.
79.
van der Vlugt, H. (1991). Neuropsychological validation studies of learning disability subtypes: Verbal, visual-spatial, and psychomotor abilities. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 140–159). New York: Guilford Press.
80.
van der Vlugt, H., & Satz, P. (1985). Subgroups and subtypes of learning-disabled and normal children: A cross-cultural replication. In B.P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 212–227). New York: Guilford Press.
81.
Wechsler, D. (1949). Wechsler intelligence scale for children. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
82.
White, J.L., Moffitt, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1992). Neuropsychological and socio-emotional correlates of specific-arithmetic disability. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 7, 1–16.
83.
Williams, J.K., Richman, L., & Yarbrough, D. (1992). Comparison of visual-spatial performance strategy training in children with Turner syndrome and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 658–664.
84.
Wills, K.E., Holmbeck, G.N., Dillon, K., & McLone, D.G. (1990). Intelligence and achievement in children with myelomen-ingocele. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 161–176.
