Fluency is a multidimensional construct that requires automaticity with foundational skills. Fluency is not an end in itself but serves as a bridge between decoding and reading comprehension. However, many secondary students struggle with proficient reading and fail to attain the most functional levels of literacy, even after receiving intensive reading interventions. The current study investigated the effects of repeated reading interventions on the oral reading fluency of adolescents at risk for and with reading disabilities. Sixty-eight students in Grades 6 through 8 (35 female, 33 male) were taught by 11 teachers and participated in either Repeated Reading Plus or Silent Repeated Reading. Hierarchical residual change regressions were conducted to evaluate the main effect and interaction effects of Repeated Reading Plus and Silent Repeated Reading on oral reading fluency (words correct per minute). Grade level and special education status were included as covariates. Multilevel analyses were used to account for between-teacher variability. Results indicate repeated reading interventions that include previewing multisyllabic words, fluent modeling of connected text, repeated partner reading, and answering comprehension questions may support the oral reading fluency of middle school students with reading difficulties and disabilities.
BatesD.MächlerM.BolkerB.WalkerS. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
2.
BonferroniC. (1936). In tests of several samples for a population with normal distribution (Pubblicazioni del R. Ist. Super. Agr). Economia di Firenze, 8(2), 35–44.
3.
ChallJ. S. (1996). American reading achievement: Should we worry?Research in the Teaching of English, 30(3), 303–310. https://doi.org/10.58680/rte199615312
4.
ChallJ. S. (2013). The great debate: Ten years later, with a modest proposal for reading stages. In ResnickL. B.WeaverP. A. (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (pp. 29–55). Routledge.
5.
ChallJ. S.JacobsV. A. (2003). Poor children’s fourth-grade slump. American Educator, 27(1), 14–17.
6.
ChampelyS.De RosarioH. (2020). pwr: Basic functions for power analysis (Version 1.3-0) [R package]. Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=pwr
7.
ChardD. J.Ketterlin-GellerL. R.BakerS. K.DoablerC.ApichatabutraC. (2009). Repeated reading interventions for students with learning disabilities: Status of the evidence. Exceptional Children, 75(3), 263–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290907500301
8.
ChardD. J.VaughnS.TylerB. J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 386–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194020350050101
9.
CirinoP. T.RomainM. A.BarthA. E.TolarT. D.FletcherJ. M.VaughnS. (2013). Reading skill components and impairments in middle school struggling readers. Reading and Writing, 26(7), 1059–1086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9406-3
ClemensN. H.OslundE.KwokO.FogartyM.SimmonsD.DavisJ. L. (2019). Skill moderators of the effects of a reading comprehension intervention. Exceptional Children, 85(2), 197–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918787339
12.
ClemensN. H.SimmonsD.SimmonsL. E.WangH.KwokO. (2017). The prevalence of reading fluency and vocabulary difficulties among adolescents struggling with reading comprehension. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 35(8), 785–798. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916662120
13.
DentonC. A.BarthA. E.FletcherJ. M.WexlerJ.VaughnS.CirinoP. T.RomainM.FrancisD. J. (2011). The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(2), 109–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888431003623546
14.
DentonC. A.WexlerJ.VaughnS.BryanD. (2008). Intervention provided to linguistically diverse middle school students with severe reading difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.00266.x
15.
DidionL.BrunoL.MarshallG.ImmerfallJ.KunkelA.McGinnJ. (2024). Reaching the top of data mountain: Postsecondary students with disabilities use data to improve fluency. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 48, 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434241250326
16.
DidionL.TosteJ. R. (2022). Climb data mountain: How components of self-determination can support oral reading fluency practice. Teaching Exceptional Children, 54(6), 424–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599211027282
17.
ElwérÅ.GustafsonS.ByrneB.OlsonR. K.KeenanJ. M.SamuelssonS. (2015). A retrospective longitudinal study of cognitive and language skills in poor reading comprehension. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12188
18.
ErbeliF.RiceM. (2022). Examining the effects of silent independent reading on reading outcomes: A narrative synthesis review from 2000 to 2020. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 38(3), 253–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2021.1944830
19.
FuchsL. S.FuchsD.HospM. K.JenkinsJ. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an rndicator of Reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0503_3
20.
GuthrieJ. T.KlaudaS. L.HoA. N. (2013). Modeling the relationship among reading instruction, motivation, engagement, and achievement for adolescents. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(1), 9–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.035
21.
Hammerschmidt-SnidarichS. M.MakiK. E.AdamsS. R. (2019). Evaluating the effects of repeated reading and continuous reading using a standardized dosage of words read. Psychology in the Schools, 56(5), 635–651. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22241
22.
HarrisP. A.TaylorR.MinorB. L.ElliottV.FernandezM.O’NealL.McLeodL.DelacquaG.DelacquaF.KirbyJ.DudaS. N. (2019). The REDCap consortium: Building an international community of software platform partners. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 95, Article 103208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2019.103208
23.
HarrisP. A.TaylorR.ThielkeR.PayneJ.GonzalezN.CondeJ. G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. J Biomed Inform, 42(2), 377–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010
24.
HawkinsR. O.HaleA. D.SheeleyW.LingS. (2011). Repeated readings and vocabulary-previewing interventions to improve fluency and comprehension for struggling high school readers: Assessment and intervention for understanding. Psychology in the Schools, 48(1), 59–77.
25.
HudsonA.KohP. W.MooreK. A.Binks-CantrellE. (2020). Fluency interventions for elementary students with reading difficulties: A synthesis of research from 2000–2019. Education Sciences, 10(3), Article 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10030052
26.
HudsonR. F.PullenP. C.LaneH. B.TorgesenJ. K. (2008). The complex nature of reading fluency: A multidimensional view. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25(1), 4–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560802491208
27.
JenkinsJ. R.FuchsL. S.van den BroekP.EspinC.DenoS. L. (2003). Sources of individual differences in reading comprehension and reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 719–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.719
28.
KamilM. L.BormanG. D.DoleJ.KralC. C.SalingerT.TorgesenJ. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices—IES practice guide (NCEE 2008–4027). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.
29.
KimJ. S.HemphillL.TroyerM.ThomsonJ. M.JonesS. M.LaRussoM. D.DonovanS. (2017). Engaging struggling adolescent readers to improve reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(3), 357–382. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.171
30.
KimY.-S. G.QuinnJ. M.PetscherY. (2021). What is text reading fluency and is it a predictor or an outcome of reading comprehension? A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 57(5), 718–732. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001167
31.
KuhnM. R.StahlS. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.3
32.
LeeJ. (2010). Tripartite growth trajectories of reading and math achievement: Tracking national academic progress at primary, middle, and high school levels. American Educational Research Journal, 47(4), 800–832. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210365009
33.
LeeJ.YoonS. Y. (2017). The effects of repeated reading on reading fluency for students with reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(2), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415605194
34.
LoniganC. J.BurgessS. R.SchatschneiderC. (2018). Examining the simple view of reading with elementary school children: Still simple after all these years. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518764833
35.
LüdeckeD.Ben-ShacharM. S.PatilI.WaggonerP.MakowskiD. (2021). Performance: An R package for assessment, comparison and testing of statistical models. Journal of Open Source Software, 6(60), Article 3139. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.03139
McNeishD.StapletonL. M. (2016). The effect of small sample size on two-level model estimates: A review and illustration. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 295–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9287-x
38.
MetsalaJ. L.DavidM. D. (2022). Improving English reading fluency and comprehension for children with reading fluency disabilities. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 28(1), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1695
39.
NationK.CockseyJ.TaylorJ. S.BishopD. V. (2010). A longitudinal investigation of early reading and language skills in children with poor reading comprehension. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(9), 1031–1039. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02254.x
40.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). Nation’s report card: The National Assessment of Educational Progress NAEP. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgg
41.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel—Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH publication no. 00-4769). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 101, Stat. 1425.
44.
PaigeD. D.RasinskiT. V.Magpuri-LavellT. (2012). Is fluent, expressive reading important for high school readers?Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(1), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/JAAL.00103
45.
ParisS. G.CarpenterR. D.ParisA. H.HamiltonE. E. (2005). Spurious and genuine correlates of children’s reading comprehension. In ParisS. G.StahlS. A. (Eds.), Children’s reading comprehension and assessment (pp. 149–178). Routledge.
PerfettiC. A. (1988). Verbal efficiency in reading ability. In DanemanM.MackinnonG. E.WallerT. G. (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 6, pp. 109–143). Academic Press.
48.
RasinskiT. V. (2000). Commentary: Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 146–151.
49.
R Core Team. (2023). R: The R project for statistical computing [Computer software] (Version 4.2.1).
50.
RobertsG. J.CapinP.RobertsG.MiciakJ.QuinnJ. M.VaughnS. (2018). Examining the effects of afterschool reading interventions for upper elementary struggling readers. Remedial and Special Education, 39(3), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517750818
51.
SchatschneiderC.FletcherJ. M.FrancisD. J.CarlsonC. D.FoormanB. R. (2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.265
52.
SilberglittB.BurnsM. K.MadyunN. I. H.LailK. E. (2006). Relationship of reading fluency assessment data with state accountability test scores: A longitudinal comparison of grade levels. Psychology in the Schools, 43(5), 527–535. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20175
53.
SteinleP. K.StevensE.VaughnS. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in grades 6 to 12: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219421991249
54.
StevensE. A.WalkerM. A.VaughnS. (2017). The Effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with learning disabilities: A synthesis of the research from 2001 to 2014. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(5), 576–590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416638028
55.
StricklandW. D.BoonR. T.SpencerV. G. (2013). The effects of repeated reading on the fluency and comprehension skills of elementary-age students with learning disabilities (LD), 2001–2011: A review of research and practice. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 11(1), 1–33.
56.
SwansonE. A. (2008). Observing reading instruction for students with learning disabilities: A synthesis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 31(3), 115–133. https://doi.org/10.2307/25474643
57.
TherrienW. J. (2004). Fluency and comprehension gains as a result of repeated reading: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325040250040801
58.
TherrienW. J.KirkJ. F.Woods-GrovesS. (2012). Comparison of a reading fluency intervention with and without passage repetition on reading achievement. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932511410360
59.
TherrienW. J.WickstromK.JonesK. (2006). Effect of a combined repeated reading and question generation intervention on reading achievement. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 21(2), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2006.00209.x
VaughnS.GerstenR.DiminoJ.TaylorM. M.Newman-GoncharR.KrowkaS.KiefferM. J.McKeownM.ReedD.SanchezM.St MartinK.WexlerJ.MorganS.YañezA.JayanthiM. (2022). Providing reading interventions for students in grades 4-9 (WWC 2022007). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://whatworks.ed.gov
62.
VaughnS.MartinezL. R.WilliamsK. J.MiciakJ.FallA. M.RobertsG. (2019a). Efficacy of a high-school extensive reading intervention for English learners with reading difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000289
63.
VaughnS.RobertsG. J.MiciakJ.TaylorP.FletcherJ. M. (2019b). Efficacy of a word- and text-based intervention for students with significant reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 52(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219418775113
64.
VaughnS.SolísM.MiciakJ.TaylorW. P.FletcherJ. M. (2016). Effects from a randomized control trial comparing researcher and school-implemented treatments with fourth graders with significant reading difficulties. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 9(S1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2015.1126386
65.
WexlerJ.VaughnS.RobertsG.DentonC. A. (2010). The efficacy of repeated reading and wide reading practice for high school students with severe reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 25(1), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00296.x
66.
YoungA. R.BowersP. G.MacKinnonG. E. (1996). Effects of prosodic modeling and repeated reading on poor readers’ fluency and comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 17(1), 59–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400009462
