This study aimed to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the mathematics-writing (MW) performance of students with mathematics difficulties (MDs) in China. We compared the performance of students with MD with their typically developing (TD) and high-performing (HP) peers. The analysis was based on a sample of 138 sixth-grade students. Our findings revealed (a) the trend in MW performance followed the hierarchy of mathematics ability levels (HP > TD > MD), whereas all groups displayed similar performance in general writing (HP = TD = MD), (b) although all three groups were able to organize their ideas in general writing, they had difficulty structuring their ideas effectively in MW, and (c) students with MD were less likely to incorporate technical mathematics vocabulary and symbols in their MW; they were also more likely to write incomplete sentences and make punctuation mistakes in their MW. Implications for educational strategies, teaching methodologies, and targeted support interventions are discussed.
AdamsT. L. (2003). Reading mathematics: More than words can say. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 786–795.
2.
AdamsM. E. (2014). The comparative grammaticality of the English comparative.
3.
ArsenaultT. L.PowellS. R.KingS. G. (2025). Mathematics-writing synthesis: Kindergarten through Grade 12 mathematics-writing outcomes and instructional methods. Reading and writing, 38(4), 1039-1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-024-10530-x
4.
ArsenaultT. L.PowellS. R. (2022). Intensifying language supports in word-problem schema instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 57(2), 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005992110695
5.
ArsenaultT. L.PowellS. R.HebertM. A.KingS. G.LinX.LangD. (2022). Mathematics–writing profiles for students with mathematics difficulty. Reading and Writing, 36(8), 2025–2052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145–022–10375–2
6.
BarnesE. M.StephensS. J. (2019). Supporting mathematics vocabulary instruction through mathematics curricula. The Curriculum Journal, 30(3), 322–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2019.1614470
CabellS. Q.HwangH. (2020). Building content knowledge to boost comprehension in the primary grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(Suppl. 1), S99–S107. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.338
9.
ČadežT. H.KolarV. M. (2018). How fifth-grade pupils reason about fractions: A reliance on part-whole subconstructs. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 99(3), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-018-9838-z
10.
CamahalanF. M. G.YoungK. M. (2015). Using math journals to encourage students to communicate their understanding of math concepts. Journal of Teacher Action Research, 1(2), 38–52.
11.
CasaT. M.FirmenderJ. M.CahillJ.CardettiF.ChoppinJ. M.CohenJ.. . .ZawodniakR. (2016). Types of and purposes for elementary mathematical writing: Task force recommendations. http://mathwriting.eduation.uconn.edu
12.
CharalambousC. Y.Pitta-PantaziD. (2007). Drawing on a theoretical model to study students’ understandings of fractions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 64(3), 293–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-006-9036-2
CirinoP. T.FuchsL. S.EliasJ. T.PowellS. R.SchumacherR. F. (2015). Cognitive and mathematical profiles for different forms of learning difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(2), 156–175.
15.
Council of Chief State School Officers, & National Governors Association Center for Best Practices. (2010). Common Core State Standards. Authors.
16.
CowanR.PowellD. (2014). The contributions of domain-general and numerical factors to third-grade arithmetic skills and mathematical learning disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 214. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034097
17.
CrowhurstM. (1990). Teaching and learning the writing of persuasive/argumentative discourse. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l’éducation, 15(4), 348–359. https://doi.org/10.2307/1495109
18.
FerrettiR. P.LewisW. E.Andrews-WeckerlyS. (2009). Do goals affect the structure of students’ argumentative writing strategies?Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 577–589. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014702
19.
FlowerdewL. (2000). Using a genre-based framework to teach organizational structure in academic writing. ELT Journal, 54(4), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/54.4.369
20.
ForsythS. R.PowellS. R. (2017). Differences in the mathematics-vocabulary knowledge of fifth-grade students with and without learning difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 32(4), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12144
21.
GloggerI.SchwonkeR.HolzäpfelL.NücklesM.RenklA. (2012). Learning strategies assessed by journal writing: Prediction of learning outcomes by quantity, quality, and combinations of learning strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 452–468. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026683
22.
HallettD.NunesT.BryantP. (2010). Individual differences in conceptual and procedural knowledge when learning fractions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 395–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017486
23.
HanX.LinX.SongX. (2025). The impact of mathematical content complexity on students’ mathematics-writing performance. Reading and Writing. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-025-10647-7
24.
HanX. N.LinX. (2024). Investigating the features of mathematics writing among Chinese students. Reading and Writing. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-024-10547-2
25.
HebertM. A.PowellS. R. (2016). Examining fourth–grade MW: Features of organization, mathematics vocabulary, and mathematical representations. Reading and Writing, 29(7), 1511–1537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145–016–9649–5
26.
HebertM. A.PowellS. R.BohatyJ.RoehlingJ. (2019). Piloting a mathematics-writing intervention with late elementary students at risk for learning difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 34(3), 144–157. DOI: 10.1111/ldrp.12202
HirvelaA. (2017). Argumentation & second language writing: Are we missing the boat?Journal of Second Language Writing, 36(8), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2017.05.002
29.
HughesE. M.LeeJ. Y. (2020). Effects of a mathematical writing intervention on middle school students’ performance. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 36(2), 176–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1677537
30.
HughesE. M.PowellS. R.StevensE. A. (2016). Supporting clear and concise mathematics language: Say this, not that. Teaching Exceptional Children, 49(1), 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059916654901
31.
HughesE. M.RiccominiP. J.LeeJ.-Y. (2020). Investigating written expressions of mathematical reasoning for students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 58(8), Article 100775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2020.100775
32.
JonesS.MyhillD.BaileyT. (2013). Grammar for writing? An investigation of the effects of contextualised grammar teaching on students’ writing. Reading and Writing, 26(8), 1241–1263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145–012–9416–1
33.
JordanN. C.HansenN.FuchsL. S.SieglerR. S.GerstenR.MicklosD. (2013). Developmental predictors of fraction concepts and procedures. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.02.001
34.
KiuharaS. A.LevinJ. R.TolbertM.O’KeeffeB. V.O’NeillR. E.JamesonJ. M. (2024). Teaching argument writing in math class: Challenges and solutions to improve the performance of 4th and 5th graders with disabilities. Reading and Writing, 37(6), 1515–1544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-023-10459-7
35.
KurniatiE.KusumastutiD. (2019). Concept map strategy to organize ideas in writing exposition text. Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.33394/jo-elt.v6i1.2346
36.
LinX.PowellS. (2021). Examining the relation between whole-number and fractions: A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 67(4), Article 102017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.102017
37.
LinX. (2021). Investigating the unique predictors of word-problem solving using meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 1097–1124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09554-w
38.
LinX.PengP.LuoH. J. (2021). The deficit profile of elementary students with computational difficulties versus word problem-solving difficulties. Learning Disability Quarterly, 44(2), 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948719865499
39.
LinX.PengP.SongX. W.LiuQ. L. (2025). Examine the longitudinal association between prior and subsequent mathematics using meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach. Educational Psychology Review, 37(2), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10030-6
40.
LinX.PengP.ZengJ. (2021). Understanding the relation between mathematics vocabulary and mathematics performance: A meta–analysis. The Elementary School Journal, 121(3), 504–540. https://doi.org/10.1086/712504
41.
LinX.ZhangJ. H.CuiH. R.SongX. W.HanX. N. (2025). Unique and combined effects of fraction vocabulary and arithmetic instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194251342191
42.
McCutchenD. (1986). Domain knowledge and linguistic knowledge in the development of writing ability. Journal of Memory and Language, 25(4), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(86)90036-7
43.
MilroyL. (2015). Comprehension and context: Successful communication and communicative breakdown 1. In The art of listening (pp. 17–42). Routledge.
MoranA. S.SwansonH. L.GerberM. M.FungW. (2014). The effects of paraphrasing interventions on problem-solving accuracy for children at risk for math disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 29(3), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12035
46.
MoschkovichJ. (2013). Principles and guidelines for equitable mathematics teaching practices and materials for English language learners. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 6(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.21423/jume–v6i1a204
47.
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). Mathematics curriculum standards for compulsory education (2022 edition). Beijing Normal University Press.
48.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
49.
NamkungJ. M.HebertM.PowellS. R.HoinsM.BrickoN.TorchiaM. (2020). Comparing and validating four methods for scoring mathematics writing. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 36(2), 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1700858
50.
NelsonG.PowellS. R. (2018). A systematic review of longitudinal studies of mathematics difficulty. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51(6), 523–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417714773
51.
O’ConnorR. E.BocianK. M.BeachK. D.SanchezV.FlynnL. J. (2013). Special education in a 4-year response to intervention (RtI) environment: Characteristics of students with learning disability and grade of identification. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 28(3), 98–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12013
PierceM. E.FontaineL. M. (2009). Designing vocabulary instruction in mathematics. The Reading Teacher, 63(3), 239–243. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.63.3.7
PowellS. R.BosS. E.LinX. (2021). The assessment of mathematics vocabulary in the elementary and middle school grades. Diversity Dimensions in Mathematics and Language Learning, 24, 313–330. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110661941-016
56.
PowellS. R.DriverM. K. (2015). The influence of mathematics vocabulary instruction embedded within addition tutoring for first–grade students with mathematics difficulty. Learning Disability Quarterly, 38(4), 221–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/073194871456457
57.
PowellS. R.HebertM. A. (2016). Influence of writing ability and computation skill on MW. The Elementary School Journal, 117(2), 310–335.
58.
PowellS. R.HebertM. A.CohenJ. A.CasaT. M.FirmenderJ. M. (2017). A synthesis of mathematics writing: Assessments, interventions, and surveys. Journal of Writing Research, 8(3), 493–530. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2017.08.03.04
RiccominiP. J.SmithG. W.HughesE. M.FriesK. M. (2015). The language of mathematics: The importance of teaching and learning mathematical vocabulary. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 31(3), 235–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2015.1030995
61.
SasmazE.ÇifciS. (2023). Expert opinions on improving informative text writing skills through descriptive writing practices. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 11(1), 50–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.11n.1p.50
62.
Psychological Corporation. (2009). Wechsler individual achievement test- third edition. Pearson.
63.
SpiresH. A.KerkhoffS. N.GrahamA. C.ThompsonI.LeeJ. K. (2018). Operationalizing and validating disciplinary literacy in secondary education. Reading and Writing, 31(3), 1401–1434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9839-4
64.
StockP.DesoeteA.RoeyersH. (2010). Detecting children with arithmetic disabilities from kindergarten: Evidence from a 3–year longitudinal study on the role of preparatory arithmetic abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(3), 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409345011
65.
TeledahlA. (2017). How young students communicate their mathematical problem solving in writing. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 48(4), 555–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2016.1256447
66.
TeledahlA.KilhamnC.AhlL. M.HeleniusO. (2024). Defining and measuring quality in students’ mathematical writing: A systematic literature review. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 37, 557–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-024-00501-4
67.
TolarT. D.FuchsL.FletcherJ. M.FuchsD.HamlettC. L. (2016). Cognitive profiles of mathematical problem solving learning disability for different definitions of disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(3), 240–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414538520
68.
ÜnalZ. E.PowellS. R.ÖzelS.ScofieldJ. E.GearyD. C. (2021). Mathematics vocabulary differentially predicts mathematics achievement in eighth grade higher-versus lower-achieving students: Comparisons across two countries. Learning and Individual Differences, 92. 102061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102061
69.
WilkinsonG. S.RobertsonG. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test: Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
