Standardized sensory, perceptual, linguistic, intellectual, and cognitive tests were administered to 470 children, approximately 96% of the students entering the first grade in the four elementary schools of Benton County, Indiana, over a 3-year period (1995-1997). The results of 36 tests and subtests administered to entering first graders were well described by a 4-factor solution. These factors and the tests that loaded most heavily on them were reading-related skills (phonological awareness, letter and word identification); visual cognition (visual perceptual abilities, spatial perception, visual memory); verbal cognition (language development, vocabulary, verbal concepts); and speech processing (the ability to understand speech under difficult listening conditions). A cluster analysis identified 9 groups of children, each with a different profile of scores on the 4 factors. Within these groups, the proportion of students with unsatisfactory reading achievement in the first 2 years of elementary school (as reflected in teacher-assigned grades) varied from 3% to 40%. The profiles of factor scores demonstrated the primary influence of the reading-related skills factor on reading achievement and also on other areas of academic performance. The second strongest predictor of reading and mathematics grades was the visual cognition factor, followed by the verbal cognition factor. The speech processing factor was the weakest predictor of academic achievement, accounting for less than 1% of the variance in reading achievement. This project was a collaborative effort of the Benton Community School Corporation and a multidisciplinary group of investigators from Indiana University.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adler-Grinberg, D., & Stark, L. (1978). Eye movements, scanpaths, and dyslexia. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, 55, 557-570.
2.
American Academy of Ophthalmology. (1983). Policy statement. Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision. San Francisco: Author.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) Washington, DC: Author.
4.
Aram, D.M., Ekelman, B.L., & Nation, J.E. (1984). Preschoolers with language disorders: 10 years later. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 232-244.
5.
Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
6.
Beery, K. (1967). The developmental test of visual-motor integration . Cleveland, OH: Modern Curriculum Press.
7.
Bess, F., & Humes, L. (1990). Audiology: The fundamentals. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
8.
Black, J.L., Collins, D.W., de Roach, J.N., & Zubrick, S.R. (1984a). A detailed study of sequential saccadic eye movements for normal- and poor-reading children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59, 423-434.
9.
Black, J.L., Collins, D.W., de Roach, J.N., & Zubrick, S.R. (1984b). Dyslexia: Saccadic eye movements. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 903-910.
10.
Black, J.L., Collins, D.W., de Roach, J.N., & Zubrick, S.R. (1984c). Smooth pursuit eye movements in normal and dyslexic children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59, 91-100.
11.
Bornstein, S.P., & Musiek, F.E. (1992). Recognition of distorted speech in children with and without learning problems. Journal of the American Academy ofAudiology, 3, 22-32.
12.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
13.
Brown, B., Haegerstrom-Portnoy, G., Adams, A.J., Yingling, C.D., Galin, D., Herron, J., et al. (1983). Predictive eye movements do not discriminate between dyslexic and control children. Neuropsychologia, 21, 121-128.
14.
Cacace, A.T., & McFarland, D.J. (1998). Central auditory processing disorder in school-aged children: A critical review. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 41, 355-373.
15.
Cardon, L.R., Smith, S., Fulker, D., Kimberling, W., Pennington, B., & DeFries, J. (1994). Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6. Science, 266, 276-279.
16.
Carlisle, J.F. (1988). Knowledge of derivational morphology and spelling ability in fourth, sixth, and eighth graders. Applied Psycholinguistics , 9, 247-266.
17.
Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149-180.
18.
Catts, H.W. (1993). The relationship between speech-language impairments and reading disabilities. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 36, 948-958.
19.
Catts, H.W., Fey, M.E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J.B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331-361.
20.
Cestnick, L., & Coltheart, M. (1999). The relationship between language-processing and visual-processing deficits in developmental dyslexia. Cognition , 71, 231-255.
21.
Cherry, R.S., & Kruger, B. (1983). Selective auditory attention abilities of learning disabled and normal achieving children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 202-205.
22.
Cohen, R. (1967). Remedial training of first grade children with visual perceptual retardation. Reading Horizons, 45, 60-63.
Conners, C.K., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J.D.A., & Epstein, J.N. (1998). Revision and restandardization of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-R): Factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 279-291.
26.
Crosby, R.M.N. (1968). Reading and the dyslexic child. London: Souvenir Press.
27.
de Hirsch, K., Hansky, J.J., & Langford, W.S. (1966). Predicting reading failure . New York: Harper & Row.
28.
Donahue, P.L., Voelkl, K.E., Campbell, J.R., & Mazzeo, J. (1999). NAEP 1998 Reading Report Card for the Nation and the States. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
29.
Eden, G.F., Stein, J.F., Wood, M.H., & Wood, F.B. (1995). Verbal and visual problems in reading disability . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 272-290.
30.
Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, P.L. 94-142, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq.
31.
Elliott, L.L., Hammer, M.A., & Scholl, M. (1989). Fine-grained auditory discrimination in normal hearing children and children with language-learning problems. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 32, 112-119.
32.
Enroth-Cugell, C., & Robson, J.G. (1966). The contrast sensitivity of retinal ganglion cells of the cat. Journal of Physiological Optics, 187, 517-552.
Everatt, J.M., McCorquodale, B., Smith, J., Culverwell, F., Wilks, A., Evans, D., et al. (1999). Associations between reading ability and visual processes. In J. Everatt (Ed.), Reading and dyslexia: Visual and attentional processes (pp. 1-39). New York: Routledge.
35.
Fowler, A.E., & Liberman, I.Y. (1995). Morphological awareness as related to early reading and spelling ability. In L. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 157-188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
36.
Galaburda, A.M., Menard, M.T., & Rosen, G.D. (1994). Evidence for aberrant auditory anatomy in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91, 8010-8013.
37.
Garzia, R.P., Richman, J.E., Nicholson, S.B., & Gaines, C.S. (1990). Anew visual-verbal saccade test: The Developmental Eye Movement test (DEM). Journal of the American Optometric Association, 61, 124-135.
38.
Gathercole, S.E., & Baddeley, A.D. (1989). Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory andLanguage, 28, 200-213.
39.
Gathercole, S.E., & Baddeley, A.D. (1990). Phonological memory deficits in language disordered children: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Memory andLanguage, 29, 336-360.
40.
Gathercole, S.E., & Baddeley, A. (1993). Working memory and language. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
41.
Gayan, J., & Olson, R.K. (1999). Reading disability: Evidence for a genetic etiology . European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 8(Suppl. 3), III/52-III/55.
42.
Gillam, R.B., Loeb, D.F., & Friel-Patti, S. (2001). Looking backward: A summary of five exploratory studies of Fast ForWord. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 269-273.
43.
Goodman, L., & Hammill, D. (1973). The effectiveness of the Kephart-Getman activities in developing perceptual-motor and cognitive skills. Focus onExceptional Children, 4, 1-9.
44.
Green, D.M., & Swets, J.A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley.
45.
Grievink, E.H., Peters, S. A. F., van Bon, H. J., & Schilder, A. G. M. (1993). Effects of early bilateral otitis media with effusion on language ability: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 1004-1012.
46.
Grisham, J.D., Sheppard, M.M., & Tran, W.U. (1993). Visual symptoms and reading performance. Optometry and Vision Science, 70, 384-391.
Hammill, D.D., Pearson, N.A., & Voress, J.K. (1993). Developmental Test of Visual Perception: DTVP-2 , 2nd ed. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
49.
Harnadek, M.C.S., & Rourke, B.P. (1994). Principal identifying features of the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities in children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27,144-154.
50.
Haskins, H. (1949). A phonetically balanced test of speech discrimination for children. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University.
51.
Hinshelwood, J. (1895). Word-blindness and visual memory. The Lancet, 2, 1564-1570.
52.
Humes, L.E., Christopherson, L., & Cokely, C. (1992). Central auditory processing disorders in the elderly: Fact or fiction? In J. Katz, N. Stecker, & D. Henderson (Eds.), Central auditory processing: A trans-disciplinary view (pp. 141-149). Philadelphia: Decker .
53.
Johnson, D.J., & Mykelbust, H.R. (1967). Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Juel, C., Griffith, P.L., & Gough, P.B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 243-255.
56.
Katz, J. (1962). The use of staggered spondaic words for assessing the integrity of the central auditory nervous system. Journal of Auditory Research, 2, 327-337.
57.
Keith, R. (1986). SCAN: A Screening Test for Auditory Processing Disorders. San Diego: Psychological Corp.
58.
Kephart, N.C. (1971). The slow learner in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
59.
Kewley-Port, D., Watson, C.S., & Foyle, D.C. (1988). Auditory temporal acuity in relation to category boundaries: Speech and nonspeech stimuli. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 83, 1133-1145.
60.
Kraus, N., & McGee, T. (1994). Neurophysiologic measures of central auditory function. In Proceedings of Consensus Conference on Central Auditory Processing Disorders. Rockville, MD : American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.
61.
Kraus, N., McGee, T., Carrell, T.D., & Sharma, A. (1995). Neurophysiologic bases of speech discrimination . Ear and Hearing, 16, 19-37.
62.
Kulikowski, J.J., & Tolhurst, D.J. (1973). Psychophysical evidence for sustained and transient detectors in human vision. Journal of Physiology, 232, 149-162.
63.
Kulp, M.T., & Schmidt, P.P. (1996). Visual predictors of reading performance in kindergarten and first grade children. Optometry and Vision Science, 73, 255-262.
64.
Lachmann, F.M. (1960). Perceptual-motor development in children retarded in reading ability. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 427-431.
65.
Latvala, M.L., Korhonen, T.T., Penttinen, M., & Laippala, P. (1994). Ophthalmic findings in dyslexic schoolchildren. British Journal ofOphthalmology, 78, 339-343.
66.
Lehmkuhle, S., Garzia, R.P., Turner, L., Hash, T., & Baro, J.A. (1993). A defective visual pathway in children with reading disability. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 989-996.
67.
Lennie, P. (1988). Roles of M and P pathways. In Proceedings of the Retina Research Foundation Symposium (Vol. 5, pp. 201-213). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
68.
Liberman, I.Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education , 6(6), 8-17.
69.
Livingstone, M.S., Rosen, G.D., Drislane, F.W., & Galaburda, A.M. (1991). Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular deficit in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 88, 7943-7947.
70.
Lovegrove, W.J., Bowling, A., Badcock, D., & Blackwood, M. (1980). Specific reading disability: Differences in contrast sensitivity as a function of spatial frequency. Science, 210, 439-440.
71.
Lummis, M., & Stevenson, H.W. (1990). Gender differences in beliefs and achievement: A cross-cultural study. Developmental Psychology , 26, 254-263.
72.
Lynch, J.J.Iii, L.C., Silveira, V.H., Perry, , & Merigan , W.H. (1992). Visual effects of damage to P ganglion cells in macaques. Visual Neuroscience, 8, 575-583.
73.
Lyon, G.R. (1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-30.
74.
Macmillan, N.A., & Creelman, C.D. (1990). Response bias: Characteristics of detection theory, threshold theory, and "non-parametric" indexes. Psychological Bulletin,107, 401-413.
75.
Macmillan, N.A., & Creelman, C.D. (1991). Detection theory: A user's guide. New York: Cambridge University Press.
76.
Mann, V.A. (1991). Language problems: A key to early reading problems . In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning about learning disabilities (pp. 129-162). San Diego: Academic Press.
77.
Mann, V.A., Shankweiler, D., & Smith, S.T. (1985). The association between comprehension of spoken sentences and early reading ability. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 22, 76-89.
78.
Marshall, R.M., Hynd, G.W., Handwerk, M.J., & Hall, J. (1997). Academic under-achievement in ADHD subtypes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 635-642.
79.
Martin, F., & Lovegrove, W. (1987). Flicker contrast sensitivity in normal and specifically-disabled readers. Perception, 16, 215-221.
80.
Martin, F., & Lovegrove, W.J. (1988). Uniform-field flicker masking in control and specifically-disabled readers. Perception , 17, 203-214.
81.
Martos, F.J., & Vila, J. (1990). Differences in eye movements control among dyslexic, retarded and normal readers in the Spanish population. Reading and Writing, 2, 175-188.
82.
Mason, A., Cornelissen, P., Fowler, S., & Stein, J. (1993). Contrast sensitivity, ocular dominance and specific reading disability. Clinical VisionScience, 8, 345-353.
83.
Maslow, P., Frostig, M., Lefever, D.W., & Whittlesey, J.R.B. (1964). The Marianne Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception, 1963 standardization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19, 463-499.
84.
McCauley, R., & Demetras, M. (1990). The identification of language impairment in a selection of specifically language impaired subjects. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 55, 468-475.
Mody, M., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Brady, S. (1997). Speech perception deficits in poor readers: Auditory processing or phonological coding?Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64, 199-231.
87.
Montgomery, J.W. (1995). Sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment: The role of phonological working memory. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 187-199.
88.
Musiek, F.E., Baran, J.A., & Pinheiro, M.L. (1990). Duration pattern recognition in normal subjects and patients with cerebral and cochlear lesions. Audiology, 29, 304-313.
89.
Nagarajan, S., Mahncke, H., Salz, T., Tallal, P., Roberts, T., & Merzenich, M.M. (1999). Cortical auditory signal processing in poor readers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96, 6483-6488.
90.
National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel. (1998). Diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. NIH Consensus Statement1998, Nov 16-18; 16(2), 1-37.
91.
Newcomer, P.L., & Hammill, D.D. (1988). Test of Language Development-2. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
92.
Nittrouer, S. (1999). Do temporal processing deficits cause phonological processing problems?Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 925-942.
93.
Olson, R.K., Kliegl, R., & Davidson, B.J. (1983). Dyslexic and normal readers' eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9, 816-825.
94.
Olson, R.K., & Wise, B.W. (1992). Reading on the computer with orthographic and speech feedback: An overview of the Colorado remediation project. Reading and Writing, 4, 107-144.
95.
Orton, S.T. (1925). "Word-blindness" in school children. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 14, 581-615.
96.
Palva, A., & Jokinen, K. (1975). Undistorted and filtered speech audiometry in children with normal hearing. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 80, 383-388.
97.
Pavlidis, G.T. (1981a). Do eye movements hold the key to dyslexia?Neuropsychologia, 19, 57-64.
98.
Pavlidis, G.T. (1981b). Sequencing, eye movements and the early objective diagnosis of dyslexia. In G. T. Pavlidis & T. R. Miles (Eds.), Dyslexia research and its applications to education (pp. 99-163). New York: Wiley.
99.
Perfetti, C.A., Beck, I.L., Bell, L., & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283-319.
100.
Pinheiro, M. L., & Musiek, F. E. (Eds.). (1985). Assessment of central auditory dysfunction: Foundations and clinical correlates. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
101.
Poynter, H.L., Schor, C., Haynes, H.M., & Hirsch, J. (1982). Oculomotor functions in reading disability. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, 59, 116-127.
102.
Primary Test of Cognitive Skills. (1990). Monterey, CA: CTB/McGraw-Hill .
103.
Rack, J.P., Snowling, M.J., & Olson, R.K. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 28-53.
104.
Rees, N.S. (1981). Saying more than we know: Is auditory processing disorder a meaningful concept? In R. W. Keith (Ed.), Central auditory and language disorders in children (pp. 94-120). Houston, TX: College-Hill Press.
105.
Roberts, J.E., Burchinal, M.R., Davis, B.P., Collier, A.M., & Henderson, F.W. (1991). Otitis media in early childhood and later language. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 34, 1158-1168.
106.
Rosen, C.L. (1966). An experimental study of visual perceptual training and reading achievement in first grade. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 22, 979-986.
107.
Rourke, B.P. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the model. New York: Guilford .
108.
Rourke, B., del Dotto, J.E., Rourke, S.B., & Casey, J.E. (1990). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and a case study. Journal of School Psychology, 28, 361-385.
109.
Rutter, M. (1989). Isle of Wight revisited: Twenty-five years of child psychiatric epidemiology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 633-653.
110.
Sanger, D.D., Keith, R.W., & Mahr, B.A. (1987). Recognition of distorted speech in children with and without learning problems. Journal of Communication Disorders , 20, 265-279.
111.
Santiago, H.C., & Matos, I. (1994). Visual recognition memory in specific learning-disabled children. Journal of the American Optometric Association, 65, 690-700.
112.
Schiller, P.H., Logothetis, N.K., & Charles, E.R. (1990). Role of the color-opponent and broad-band channels in vision. Visual Neuroscience, 5, 321-346.
113.
Shankweiler, D., Crain, S., Katz, L., Fowler, A.E., Liberman, A.M., Brady, S.A., et al. (1995). Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax . Psychological Science, 6, 149-156.
114.
Shaywitz, B.A., Fletcher, J.M., Holahan, J.M., Shneider, A.E., Marchione, K.E., Stuebing, K.K., et al. (1995). Interrelationships between reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cognitive Neuropsychology , 1, 170-186.
115.
Simons, H.D. (1993). An analysis of the role of vision anomalies in reading interference. Optometry and Vision Science, 70, 369-373.
116.
Simons, H.D., & Gassler, P.A. (1988). Vision anomalies and reading skill: A meta-analysis of the literature. American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics, 65, 893-904.
117.
Smith, C.E., & Keogh, B.K. (1962). The group Bender-Gestalt as a reading readiness screening instrument. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 15, 639-645.
118.
Snow, R.E., & Lohman, D.F. (1989). Implications of cognitive psychology for educational measurement. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 263-331). New York: Macmillan.
119.
Snowling, M.J. (1996). Contemporary approaches to the teaching of reading . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines , 37, 139-148.
120.
Stanley, G., Smith, G.A., & Howell, E.A. (1983). Eye-movements and sequential tracking in dyslexic and control children. British Journal of Psychology, 74, 181-187.
121.
Stanovich, K.E. (1988). Children's reading and the development of phonological awareness. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
122.
Stark, R.E., & Tallal, P. (1981). Selection of children with specific language deficits . Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 46, 114-122.
123.
Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain andLanguage, 9, 182-198.
124.
Tallal, P., Miller, S.L., Bedi, G., Byma, G., Wang, X., Nagarajan, S.S., et al. (1996). Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science, 271, 81-84
125.
Tallal, P., Miller, S., & Fitch, H.A. (1993). Neurobiological basis of speech: A case for the preeminence of temporal processing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 682, 27-47.
126.
Tallal, P., & Piercy, M. (1973). Defects of non-verbal auditory perception in children with developmental aphasia. Nature, 241, 468-469.
127.
Task Force on Central Auditory Processing Consensus Development, American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (1996). Central auditory processing: Current status of research and implications for clinical practice. American Journal of Audiology, 5, 41-54.
128.
Teele, D.W., Klein, J.O., Chase, C., Menyuk, P., Rosner, B.A., & The Greater Boston Otitis Media Study Group. (1990). Otitis media in infancy and intellectual ability, school achievement, speech and language at age 7 years. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 162, 685-694.
129.
Thibos, L.N., Wheeler, W., & Horner, D. (1997). Power vectors: An application of Fourier analysis to the description and statistical analysis of refractive error. Optometry and Vision Science, 74, 367-375.
130.
Tolhurst, D.J. (1975). Reaction times in the detection of gratings by human observers: A probabilistic mechanism. Vision Research , 15, 1143-1149.
131.
Torgesen, J.K. (1991). Learning disabilities: Historical and conceptual issues. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning about learning disabilities (pp. 3-39). San Diego: Academic Press.
132.
Torgesen, J.K. (1996). Phonological awareness: A critical factor in dyslexia . Baltimore: Orton Dyslexia Society .
133.
Torgesen, J.K., & Barker, T.A. (1995). Computers as aids in the prevention and remediation of reading disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 76-87.
134.
U.S. Office of Education Assistance to States for Education of Handicapped Children: Procedures for Evaluating Specific Learning Disabilities. 42 Fed. Reg. 65.082-65,085 (1977 ).
135.
Vellutino, F.R. (1987). Dyslexia. Scientific American , 256, 34-41.
136.
Vellutino, F.R., Scanlon, D.M., & Sipay, E.R. (1997). Toward distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as primary sources of difficulty in learning to read: The importance of early intervention in diagnosing specific reading disability. In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 347-379). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
137.
Vellutino, F.R., Scanlon, D.M., Sipay, E.R., Small, S.G., Pratt, A.Chen, R., et al. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult to remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601-638.
138.
Vellutino, F.R., Steger, B.M., Moyer, S.C., Harding, C.J., & Niles, J.A. (1977). Has the perceptual deficit hypothesis led us astray?Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 375-385.
139.
Viemeister, N., & Schlauch, R.S. (1992). Issues in infant psychoacoustics . In L. A. Werner & E. W. Rubel (Eds.), Developmental psychoacoustics (pp. 191-210). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
140.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin,101, 192-212.
141.
Wagner, R., & Torgesen, J. (Personal communication, August 15,1995). Comprehensive Test of Reading-Related Phonological Processes (CTRRPP). Unpublished.
142.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., Laughon, P., Simmons, K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1993). Development of young readers' phonological processing abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 83-103.
143.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology , 30, 73-87.
144.
Watson, B.U., Goldgar, D.E., & Ryschon, K.L. (1983). Subtypes of reading disability. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 5, 377-399.
145.
Watson, B.U., & Miller, T.K. (1993). Auditory perception, phonological processing, and reading ability/disability. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 850-863.
146.
Watson, C., & Willows, D.M. (1993). Evidence for a visual-processing-deficit subtype among disabled readers. In D. M. Willows, R. S. Kruk, & E. Corcos (Eds.), Visual processes in reading and reading disabilities (pp. 287-309). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
147.
Watson, C., & Willows, D.M. (1995). Information-processing patterns in specific reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 216-231.
148.
Watson, C.S. (1994). How does basic science show that central auditory processing is critical to audition? The view from psychoacoustics. In Proceedings of Consensus Conference on Central Auditory Processing Disorders (pp. 1-21). Rockville, MD: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association.
149.
Watson, C.S., Eddins, D.A., & Kidd, G.R. (1999). The Indiana Test of Auditory Memory and Processing Rate (ITAMPR). Journal of the Acoustical Society ofAmerica , 105, 1236.
150.
Watson, C.S., Eddins, D.A., & Kidd, G.R.The Indiana Test of Auditory Memory and Processing Rate (ITAMPR). Manuscript in preparation.
151.
Wesson, M.D. (1993). Diagnosis and management of reading dysfunction for the primary care optometrist. Optometry and Vision Science , 70, 357-368.
152.
Wiederholt, J.L., & Hammill, D.D. (1971). Use of the Frostig-Horne Visual Perception Program in the urban school. Psychology in the Schools, 8, 268-274.
153.
Wightman, F., & Allen, P. (1992). Individual differences in auditory capability among preschool children. In L. A. Werner & E. W. Rubel (Eds.), Developmental psychoacoustics (pp. 113-134). Washington, DC : American Psychological Association.
154.
Willows, D.M., Kruk, R.S., & Corcos, E. (1993). Visual processes in reading and reading disabilities . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
155.
Wood, F., Felton, R., Flowers, L., & Naylor, C. (1991). Neurobehavioral definitions of dyslexia. In D. Duane & D. Gray (Eds.), The reading brain: The biological basis of dyslexia (pp. 1-25). Parkton, MD: York Press.
156.
Woodcock, R.W. (1987). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised, Form G . Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
157.
Ysseldyke, J.E. (1988). Alternate explanations for learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, and educable mentally retarded students' reading achievement (Research Report No. 10). University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Instructional Alternatives Project.
158.
Zangwill, O.L., & Blakemore, C. (1972). Dyslexia: Reversal of eye-movements during reading . Neuropsychologia, 10, 371-373.
