Pregnant and jobless: A contextualizing analysis of pregnancy dismissal in Israeli labour court rulings

Abstract

Discrimination against pregnant employees is widespread despite labour laws aimed at protecting them. Pertaining to recently emerging research on pregnancy in the workplace, including pregnancy discrimination, this study considered the gravest manifestation of direct discrimination, and one that has been neglected to date: dismissal during pregnancy. Inspired by John's contextual theory, we sought to identify the socio-economic profile of dismissed pregnant employees, illustrating their uneven distribution across the labour market. This overlooked actuality of pregnancy dismissal was studied in Israel, an environment where labour laws extensively protect pregnant employees. We focused on nearly two decades (2004–2020) of cases litigated in Israeli labour courts. This study adds to the research on pregnancy in the workplace with a new perspective that not only illuminates a frequent yet hardly addressed reality but also reveals its social variability, deconstructing the generalized vulnerability that pregnancy often connotes for women employees. Finally, directions for future research and implications for the labour market, legislators and policymakers are put forward.

Keywords

Dismissal pregnant employee contextual theory court ruling labour law

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams

McAndrew

Winterbotham

(2005) Pregnancy Discrimination at Work: A Survey of Women. Manchester: The Equal Opportunities Commission.

Alfasi

(2008) Work of Pregnant Women. Jerusalem: The Ministry of Economy and Industry- Research & Development. In Hebrew.

Arena

Jones

Sabat

, et al. (2021) The intrapersonal experience of pregnancy at work: An exploratory study. Journal of Business and Psychology 36: 85–102.

Bamberger

(2008) Beyond contextualization: Using context theories to narrow the micro-macro gap in management research. Academy of Management Journal 51(5): 839–846.

Banks

Russell

(2011) Pregnancy Discrimination in the Workplace: Legal Framework and Review of Legal Decisions 1999 to 2008. Dublin: HSE Crisis Pregnancy Programme and the Equality Authority.

Bies

Barclay

Tripp

, et al. (2016) A systems perspective on forgiveness in organizations. The Academy of Management Annals 10(1): 245–318.

Bilan

Mishchuk

Samoliuk

, et al. (2020) Gender discrimination and its links with compensations and benefits practices in enterprises. Entrepreneurial Business & Economics Review 8(3): 189–203.

Blumen

(2015) Employee benefits and high-tech fatherhood. Journal of Managerial Psychology 30(5): 535–549.

Blumen

(2019) On the service frontline: Israeli Arab-Palestinian men in a call-center. Gender, Place and Culture 26(5): 203–226.

10.

Boulos

(2003) The Integration of Arab Women into the Israeli Labour Market: Obstacles and Suggestions for Solutions. Tel-Aviv: The Association for Civil Rights in Israel. In Hebrew.

11.

Byron

(2010) Discrimination, complexity, and the public / private sector question. Work and Occupations 37(4): 435–475.

12.

Byron

Roscigno

(2014) Relational power, legitimation, and pregnancy discrimination. Gender & Society 28(3): 435–462.

13.

Carney

(2009) The employment disadvantage of mothers: Evidence for systemic discrimination. Journal of Industrial Relations 51(1): 113–130.

14.

Carney

Junor

(2014) How do occupational norms shape mothers’ career and caring options? Journal of Industrial Relations 56(4): 465–487.

15.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2015) Israel in Figures 2015. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/DocLib/isr_in_n/isr_in_n15e.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

16.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2018a) Table 2.14: Weekly Work Hours: Total and Average per Employed Person, by Age, Population Group and Sex. Available at: https://din-online.info/pdf/lst104.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

17.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2018b) Table 6.1: Women Aged 15 and Over (not incl. Kibbutzim and Permanent Samples) (1) by Population Group, Labour Force Characteristics, Number of Own Children (2) and Age of Youngest Child. Available at: https://din-online.info/pdf/lst104.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

18.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2018c) Table 12.6: Israel Statistical Abstract 2018. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2018/12.%20shnatonlabourandwages/st12_06.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

19.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2020a) Table 9.52: Employment Rate of Persons Aged 15 and Over, by Sex—International Comparisons. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/9.shnatonlabourmarket/st09_52x.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

20.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2020b) Table 9.12: Israel Statistical Abstract 2020. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/9.shnatonlabourmarket/st09_12x.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

21.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2020c) Table 2.41: Fertility Rates by Age and Religion. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/2.shnatonpopulation/st02_41.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

22.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2020d) Table 9.18: Israel Statistical Abstract 2020. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/9.shnatonlabourmarket/st09_18x.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

23.

Central Bureau of Statistics (2020e) Table 9.15: Israel Statistical Abstract 2020. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/9.shnatonlabourmarket/st09_15.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

24.

Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (2020f) Table 2.16: Israel Statistical Abstract 2020. Available at: https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/doclib/2020/2.shnatonpopulation/st02_16x.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

25.

Chen

Hsieh

(2015) Does pursuing external incentives compromise public service motivation? Comparing the effects of job security and high pay. Public Management Review 17(8): 1190–1213.

26.

Chen

Bao

Lin

, et al. (2018) Double burden for women in mid- and later life: Evidence from time-use profiles in Cebu, the Philippines. Ageing & Society 38(11): 2325–2355.

27.

Cinamon

Habayib

Ziv

(2016) The conception of work and higher education among Israeli Arab women. International Journal of Educational Research 76: 129–140.

28.

Colby

(2014) A jury for Israel: Determining when a lay jury system is ideal in a heterogeneous country. Cornell International Law Journal 47: 121–143.

29.

Davies

Frink

(2014) The origins of the ideal worker: The separation of work and home in the United States from the market revolution to 1950. Work and Occupations 41(1): 18–39.

30.

Dizaho

Salleh

Abdullah

(2016) The impact of work-family conflict on working mothers’ career development: A review of literature. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 10(11): 328–334.

31.

Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (2017) Annual Report 2017. Available at: https://employment.molsa.gov.il/publications/publications/doclib/workequlityreport_2017.pdf (accessed 28 December 2018) [In Hebrew].

32.

Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (2020) Annual Report 2020. Available at: https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/reports/equal-employment-opportunity-2020-report/he/equal-opportunity-commission-at-work_Doh_Nezivut_Shivyon_Hizdamnuyot_2020_WEB.pdf (accessed 21 October 2021) [In Hebrew].

33.

Equal Employment Opportunities Law (1988). Available at: https://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/law01/p214m1_001.htm (accessed 27 December 2021) [In Hebrew].

34.

Equality Act (2010). Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents (accessed 27 December 2021).

35.

Foley

Williamson

Mosseri

(2020) Women, work and industrial relations in Australia in 2019. Journal of Industrial Relations 62(3): 365–379.

36.

Fox

Quinn

(2015) Pregnant women at work: The role of stigma in predicting women’s intended exit from the workforce. Psychology of Women Quarterly 39(2): 226–242.

37.

Gatrell

(2011) Managing the maternal body: A comprehensive review and transdisciplinary analysis. International Journal of Management Reviews 13(1): 97–112.

38.

Gatrell

(2013) Maternal body work: How women managers and professionals negotiate pregnancy and new motherhood at work. Human Relations 66(5): 621–644.

39.

Gatrell

Cooper

Kossek

(2017) Maternal bodies as taboo at work: New perspectives on the marginalizing of senior-level women in organizations. The Academy of Management Perspectives 31(3): 239–252.

40.

Greenberg

Clair

Ladge

(2021) A feminist perspective on conducting personally relevant research: Working mothers studying pregnancy and motherhood at work. Academy of Management Perspectives 35(3): 400–417.

41.

Hackney

Perrewe

(2018) Examining the role of pregnancy at work: Implications for the well-being of the mother and baby. In: Buckley

Wheeler

Halbesleben

JRB

(eds) Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management. London: Emerald Publishing Limited, pp.111–139.

42.

Hackney

Daniels

Paustian-Underdahl

, et al. (2021) Examining the effects of perceived pregnancy discrimination on mother and baby health. Journal of Applied Psychology 106(5): 774–783.

43.

Hassard

Gruzdyte

Delic

, et al. (2021) Pregnancy-related stigma in the workplace and psychological health: Is there a relationship? In: Hassard

Torres

(eds) Aligning Perspectives in Gender Mainstreaming. Cham: Springer, pp.77–94.

44.

Hérault

Kalb

(2020) Understanding the Rising Trend in Female Labour Force Participation. Available at: https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/223730/1/dp13288.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

45.

Hochschild

Machung

(1989) The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution at Home. New York: Viking.

46.

Hook

Pettit

(2016) Reproducing occupational inequality: Motherhood and occupational segregation. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 23(3): 329–362.

47.

HREOC (1999) Pregnant and Productive: It’s a Right Not a Privilege to Work While Pregnant. Sydney: HREOC.

48.

Ilany

(2016) Compensation award for wrongful dismissal of pregnant women in Israel. Studia Edukacyjne 41: 359–388.

49.

International Labour Organization (2012) Maternity Protection Resource Package: Employment Protection and Non-Discrimination: Module 9. Available at: http://mprp.itcilo.org/allegati/en/m9.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

50.

James

(2004) Pregnancy Discrimination at Work: A Review. Manchester: The Equal Opportunities Commission.

51.

James

(2007) Law’s response to pregnancy/workplace conflicts: A critique. Feminist Legal Studies 15(2): 167–188.

52.

James

(2011) The law relating to maternity leave. In: Wright

Conley

(eds) Gower Handbook of Discrimination at Work. Surrey: Gower, pp.47–56.

53.

Johns

(2006) The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review 31(2): 386–408.

54.

Johns

(2018) Advances in the treatment of context in organizational research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 5(1): 21–46.

55.

Jones

(2017) To tell or not to tell? Examining the role of discrimination in the pregnancy disclosure process at work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 22(2): 239–250.

56.

Kalagy

Malchi

Braun-Lewensohn O (2020) Do professional communities enhance the personal and professional well-being of minority women? The case of Ultra-Orthodox women in Israel. International Review of Psychiatry 32(7–8): 685–697.

57.

Katz

Lavee

(2005) Families in Israel. In: Adams

Trost

(eds) Handbook of World Families. Thousand Oaks: Sage, pp.486–507.

58.

King

Naon

Wolde

, et al. (2009) Employment of Arab Women Aged 18–64. Jerusalem: The Myers JDC Brookdale.

59.

Labour Courts Law 1969. Available at: https://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/law01/042_001.htm (accessed 27 December 2021) [In Hebrew].

60.

Law

(2016) A Dictionary of Business and Management. 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199684984.001.0001 (accessed 24 December 2020).

61.

Lewis

(2000) Pregnancy and maternity leave: Employment law as a family friend? Industrial Relations Journal 31(2): 130–143.

62.

Little

Major

Hinojosa

, et al. (2015) Professional image maintenance: How women navigate pregnancy in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal 58(1): 8–37.

63.

McDonald

Dear

Backstrom

(2008) Expecting the worst: Circumstances surrounding pregnancy discrimination at work and progress to formal redress. Industrial Relations Journal 39(3): 229–247.

64.

Mäkelä

(2012) A narrative approach to pregnancy-related discrimination and leader–follower relationships. Gender, Work & Organization 19(6): 677–698.

65.

Mandel

Semyonov

(2006) A welfare state paradox: State interventions and women’s employment opportunities in 22 countries. American Journal of Sociology 111(6): 1910–1949.

66.

Masser

Grass

Nesic

(2007) ‘We like you, but we don’t want you’—The impact of pregnancy in the workplace. Sex Roles 57(9–10): 703–712.

67.

Miaari

Khattab

Sabbah-Karkabi

(2020) Obstacles to Labour Market Participation among Arab Women in Israel (No. 13572). Available at: http://ftp.iza.org/dp13572.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020).

68.

Ministry of Finance (2018a) Salary Expenses Report (Public Entities). Available at: https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/reports/salary_suerior_report_public_body_2018/he/Publishes_Reports_salary_suerior_report_public_body_2018-short-version.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020) [In Hebrew].

69.

Ministry of Finance (2018b) Salary Expenses Report (State Service). Available at: https://www.gov.il/BlobFolder/reports/salary_expenses_report_2018/he/Publishes_Reports_SalaryExpenses_Report2018-extended.pdf (accessed 24 December 2020) [In Hebrew].

70.

Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Social Services (2019). Annual Report 2019. Available at: https://employment.molsa.gov.il/Employment/SafetyAndHealth/ResearchAndProjects/Reports/Reports/FreeInfo_molsa-free-info-report-2019-new2.pdf (accessed 27 December 2021).

71.

Mundlak

Harpaz

(2002) Determinants of Israeli judicial discretion in issuing injunctions against strikers. British Journal of Industrial Relations 40(4): 753–777.

72.

Neilson

Stanfors

(2014) It’s about time! Gender, parenthood, and household divisions of labor under different welfare regimes. Journal of Family Issues 35(8): 1066–1088.

73.

O’Connell

Russell

Watson

, et al. (2009) The Changing Workplace: A Survey of Employees’ Views and Experiences. Dublin: NCPP.

74.

Paustian-Underdahl

Eaton

Mandeville

, et al. (2019) Pushed out or opting out? Integrating perspectives on gender differences in withdrawal attitudes during pregnancy. Journal of Applied Psychology 104: 985–1002.

75.

Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978. Available at: https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/pregnancy-discrimination-act-1978 (accessed 27 December 2021).

76.

Scott

(2015) A Dictionary of Sociology. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199683581.001.0001 (accessed 24 December 2020).

77.

Sellberg

(2018) Gender: Time. Farmington Hills: Macmillan.

78.

Sex Discrimination Act 1984. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2014C00002 (accessed 27 December 2021).

79.

Toshav-Eichner

(2016) The Woes of Gender Discrimination: Fired for Being Female. Tel-Aviv: Contentonow.

80.

Travers

(2010) Understanding Law and Society. Abingdon: Routledge.

81.

Tzameret-Kercher

Herzog

Chazan

, et al. (2017) The Gender Index: Gender Inequality in Israel 2017. Jerusalem: The Van Lear Institute.

82.

Vago

(2015) Law and Society. New York: Routledge.

83.

Vardi

Weitz

(2016) Misbehavior in Organizations: A Dynamic Approach. New York: Routledge.

84.

Vujinovic

(2014) ‘… There’s no substituting actual time with your child’: Understanding first-time mothers’ readiness to return to work. Journal of Industrial Relations 56(4): 488–507.

85.

Women's Labour Law 1954. Available at: https://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/law01/p176_001.htm#Seif15 (accessed 27 December 2021) [In Hebrew].

86.

World Bank (2020) Labor Force Participation Rate, Female (% of Female Population Ages 15+) (National Estimate). Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.NE.ZS?locations=US-ES-AU (accessed 24 December 2020).