Previous research in the United States suggests that depression related to economic hardship decreases with age. We test whether this pattern can be generalized to other developed nations. Based on data from 23 countries in the European Social Survey (2006–2007), multilevel analyses show that the moderating role of age depends on the socio-political context. While the hardship–depression link is not significantly different across the life course in Nordic and Bismarckian regimes, the hardship–depression link increases with age in Southern and Eastern European countries and decreases with age in strength in Anglo-Saxon welfare states. Our findings suggest that welfare state regimes play a significant role in attenuating, boosting, or even reversing the health effects of social experiences such as economic hardship on aging. Health knowledge gained through research that ignores the socio-political context may be limited in terms of generalization.
ArtsWilGelissenJohn. 2002. “Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism or More? A State-of-the-Art Report.” Journal of European Social Policy12:137–58.
2.
AtkinsonTony B.CantillonBeaMarlierEricNolanBrian. 2002. Social Indicators: The EU and Social Inclusion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
3.
AtkinsonTony B.1998. Poverty in Europe. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
4.
AvendanoMauricoHendrikJürgesMackenbachJohan P.. 2009. “Educational Level and Changes in Health across Europe: Longitudinal Results from SHARE.” Journal of European Social Policy19:301–16.
5.
AvisonWilliam R.AliJenniferWaltersDavid. 2007. “Family Structure, Stress, and Psychological Distress: A Demonstration of the Impact of Differential Exposure.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior48:301–17.
6.
BambraClare. 2006. “Health Status and the Worlds of Welfare.” Social Policy and Society5:53–62.
7.
BambraClareEikemoTerje A.2009. “Welfare Regimes, Unemployment and Health: A Comparative Study of the Relationship between Unemployment and Self-reported Health in 23 European Countries.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health63:92–98.
8.
BeckettMegan. 2000. “Converging Health Inequalities in Later Life: An Artifact of Mortality Selection?” Journal of Health and Social Behavior41:106–19.
9.
BonoliGuilianoParlierBruno. 2007. “When Past Reforms Open New Opportunities: Comparing Old-Age Insurance Reforms in Bismarckian Welfare Systems.” Social Policy and Administration41:555–73.
10.
BradyDavid. 2005. “The Welfare State and Relative Poverty in Rich Western Democracies, 1967–1997.” Social Forces83:1329–64.
11.
BradyDavidFullertonAndrew S.CrossJennifer M.2009. “Putting Poverty in Political Context: A Multilevel Analysis of Adult Poverty across 18 Affluent Democracies.” Social Forces88:271–300.
12.
BrownGeorge W.HarrisTirril O.HepworthCatherine. 1995. “Loss, Humiliation and Entrapment among Women Developing Depression: A Patient and Non-Patient Comparison.” Psychological Medicine25:7–21.
13.
ChungHaejooMuntanerCarles. 2008. “Welfare Regime Types and Global Health: An Emerging Challenge.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health62:282–83.
14.
CohenAyala. 1983. “Comparing Regression Coefficients across Subsamples: A Study of the Statistical Test.” Sociological Methods and Research12:77–94.
15.
EatonWilliam W.MuntanerCarlesBavossoGregorySmithCorey. 2001. “Socio-Economic Status and Depressive Syndrome: The Role of Inter- and Intragenerational Mobility, Government Assistance, and Work Environment.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior42:277–94.
16.
EikemoTerje A.BambraClare. 2008. “The Welfare State: A Glossary for Public Health.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health62:3–6.
17.
EikemoTerje A.BambraClareJoyceKenDahlEspen. 2008. “Welfare Regimes and Income-Related Health Inequalities: A Comparison of 23 European Countries.” European Journal of Public Health18, 6:593–599.
18.
EikemoTerje A.BambraClareJudgeKenRingdalKristen. 2008. “Welfare State Regimes and Differences in Self-Perceived Health in Europe: A Multilevel Analysis.” Social Science and Medicine66:2281–95.
19.
EikemoTerje A.HuismanMartijnBambraClareKunstAnton. 2008. “Health Inequalities According to Educational Level in Different Welfare Regimes: A Comparison of 23 European Countries.” Sociology of Health and Illness30:565–82.
20.
EikemoTerje A.KunstAntonJudgeKenMackenbachJohan P.2008. “Class-Related Health Inequalities Are Not Larger in the East: A Comparison of Four European Regions Using the New European Socio-Economic Classification.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health62:1072–78.
21.
EspeltAlbertBorrellCarmeRodriguez-SanzMaicaMuntanerCarlesPasarinIsabel M.BenachJoanSchaapMaartjeKunstAnton E.NavarroVicente. 2008. “Inequalities in Health by Social Class Dimensions in European Countries of Different Political Tradition.” International Journal of Epidemiology37:1095–1105.
22.
Esping-AndersenGosta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. London: Polity.
23.
Esping-AndersenGosta2003. “A Welfare State for the 21st Century.” Pp.134–56 in The Global Third Way Debate, edited by GiddensA.Oxford, UK: Polity.
European Union and World Health Organization. 2002. Health Status Overview for Countries of Central and Eastern Europe That Are Candidates for Accession to the European Union. Brussels, Belgium: European Union.
26.
EvansGary W.WellsNancy M.MochAnnie. 2003. “Housing and Mental Health: A Review of the Evidence and a Methodological and Conceptual Critique.” Journal of Social Issues59:475–500.
27.
FaheyTonyNolanBrianMaîtreBertrand. 2004. “Housing Expenditures and Income Poverty in EU Countries.” Journal of Social Policy33:437–54.
28.
FerreraMaurizio. 1996. “The ‘Southern’ Model of Welfare in Social Europe.” Journal of European Social Policy6:17–37.
29.
FouargeDidierLayteRichard. 2005. “Welfare Regimes and Poverty Dynamics: The Duration and Recurrence of Poverty Spells in Europe.” Journal of Social Policy34:407–26.
30.
GallieDuncanKostovaDobrinkaKucharPavel. 2001. “Social Consequences of Unemployment: An East-West Comparison.” Journal of European Social Policy11:39–54.
31.
HoxJoop. 2002. Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
32.
JowellRobert and the Central Co-ordinating Team of the European Social Survey 2006/2007. 2007. Technical Report. London: Centre for Comparative Social Sciences Surveys City University.
33.
KahnJoan R.PearlinLeonard I.2006. “Financial Strain over the Life Course and Health among Older Adults.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior47:17–31.
34.
KimJinyoungDurdenEmily. 2007. “Socio-Economic Status and Age Trajectories in Health.” Social Science and Medicine65:2489–2502.
35.
KorpiWalterPalmeJoakim. 1998. “The Paradox of Redistribution and the Strategy of Equality: Welfare State Institutions, Inequality and Poverty in the Western Countries.” American Sociological Review63:662–87.
36.
LevecqueKatia. 2008. Armoede en Depressie: (G)Een Evident verband (Poverty and depression: A [non] evident link). Leuven, Belgium: Acco.
37.
Lloyd-SherlockPeter. 2000. “Old Age and Poverty in Developing Countries: New Policy Challenges.” World Development28:2157–68.
38.
LynchScott M.2003. “Cohort and Life-Course Patterns in the Relationship between Education and Health: A Hierarchical Approach.” Demography40:309–31.
39.
McDonoughPeggyBerglundPat. 2003. “Histories of Poverty and Self-Rated Health Trajectories.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior44:198–214.
40.
McLeodJane D.KesslerRonald C.1990. “Socio-Economic Status Differences in Vulnerability to Undesirable Life Events.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior31:162–72.
41.
MiechRichard A.ShanahanMichael J.2000. “Socioeconomic Status and Depression over the Life Course.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior41:162–76.
42.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.1992. “Age and Depression.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior33:187–205.
43.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.1999. “Economic Hardship across the Life Course.” American Sociological Review64:548–69.
44.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.2001. “Age and the Effect of Economic Hardship on Depression.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior42:132–50.
45.
NavarroVincenteShiLeiyu. 2001. “The Political Context of Social Inequalities and Health.” International Journal of Health Services31:1–21.
46.
OggJim. 2005. “Social Exclusion and Insecurity among Older Europeans: The Influence of Welfare Regimes.” Aging and Society25:69–90.
47.
OlafsdottirSigrun. 2007. “Fundamental Causes of Health Disparities: Stratification, the Welfare State, and Health in the United States and Iceland.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior48:239–53.
48.
OlsenKarenDahlSvenn-Age. 2007. “Health Differences between European Countries.” Social Science and Medicine64:1665–78.
49.
O’NeillDave M.BertolloDavid N.1998. “Work and Earning Losses Due to Mental Illness: Perspectives from Three National Surveys.” Administration and Policy in Mental Health25:505–23.
50.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2000a. Labour Force Statistics. Paris: Author.
51.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2000b. Poverty Dynamics in Six OECD Countries. Geneva: Author.
52.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2008. Growing Unequal? Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries. Geneva: Author.
53.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2009. OECD Health Data CD-ROM. Paris: Author.
54.
PearlinLeonard I.LiebermanMorton A.MenaghanElizabeth G.MullanJozeph T.1981. “The Stress Process.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior22:337–56.
55.
PearlinLeonard I.NguyenJim B.SchiemanScottMilkieMelissa A.2007. “The Life-Course Origins of Mastery among Older People.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior48:164–79.
56.
PhillipsonChris. 2005. “The Political Economy of Old Age.” Pp. 502–509 in The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Ageing, edited by JohnsonM. L.BengtsonV. L.ColemanP. G.KirkwoodT. B. L.. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
57.
PudrovskaTetyanaSchiemanScottPearlinLeonard I.NguyenKim. 2005. “The Sense of Mastery as a Mediator and Moderator in the Association between Economic Hardship and Health in Late Life.” Journal of Aging and Health17:634–60.
58.
RadloffLenore S.1977. The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population. Applied Psychological Measurement1:385–401.
59.
RossCatherine E.HuberJoan. 1985. “Hardship and Depression.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior26:312–27.
60.
SchiemanScottVan GundyKarenTaylorJohn. 2001. “Status, Role and Resource Explanations for Age Patterns in Psychological Distress.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior42:80–96.
61.
SiefertKristineHeflinColleen M.CorcoranMary E.WilliamsDavid R.2004. “Food Insufficiency and Physical and Mental Health in a Longitudinal Survey of Welfare Recipients.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior45:171–86.
62.
TownsendPeterDavidsonNick (eds.). 1992. Inequalities in Health: The Black Report and the Health Divide. London: Penguin.
63.
TurnerJay R.LloydDonald A.1999. “The Stress Process and the Social Distribution of Depression.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior40:374–404.
64.
Van de VeldeSarahBrackePietLevecqueKatiaMeulemanBart. 2010. “Gender Differences in Depression in 23 European Countries after Eliminating Measurement Bias in the CES-D 8.” Social Sciences Research39:396–404.
65.
WadeTerrance J.PevalinDavid J.2004. “Marital Transitions and Mental Health.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior45:155–70.
66.
WhooleyMary A.KiefeCatarina I.ChesneyMargaret A.MarkovitzJerome H.MatthewsKarenHulleyStephen B.2002. “Depressive Symptoms, Unemployment and Loss of Income: The CARDIA Study.” Archives of International Medicine162:2614–20.
67.
World Health Organization. 2003. Investing in Mental Health Care. Geneva: Author.
68.
YangYang. 2007. “Is Old Age Depressing? Growth Trajectories and Cohort Variations in Late-Life Depression.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior48 (March):16–32.
69.
YngweMonica A.FritzellJohanBurströmBoLundbergOlle. 2005. “Comparison or Consumption? Distinguishing between Different Effects of Income on Health in Nordic Welfare States.” Social Science and Medicine61:627–35.
