Substance Abuse in Indonesian Prisons: A Sociological Analysis of Risk and Protective Factors Through Structuration Theory and the Autonomous-Related Self

Abstract

Substance abuse constitutes a pressing public health and social challenge that demands approaches extending beyond biomedical frameworks. This study examines risk and protective factors of substance abuse among incarcerated men in Indonesia through Strong Structuration Theory (SST) and the Autonomous-Related Self (ARS), capturing the interplay between social structure, agency, and cultural self-conceptions. A qualitative thematic content analysis of 196 Community Research Assessment Reports (LITMAS) compiled by correctional officers in East Java was undertaken, combining descriptive statistics with systematic manual coding to identify structural risks, behavioural patterns, and protective resources. Findings indicate that social vulnerability, peer influence, and prior relapse constitute dominant risks, while family support, social connectedness, and vocational skills emerge as key protective factors. These dynamics highlight how agency is constrained yet enabled by social structures and cultural expectations of autonomy and relatedness. The study advances sociologically informed addiction research in collectivist contexts, with implications for theory and policy.

Keywords

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aeni

Yosep

Sriati

(2024). The influence of positive self-talk on motivation to heal in prisoners with drug abuse cases in prisons Class II B Polewali West Sulawesi. Jurnal Kesehatan Manarang, 10(2), 121–129. https://doi.org/10.33490/jkm.v10i2.1333

Amaro

Sanchez

Bautista

Cox

(2021). Social vulnerabilities for substance use: Stressors, socially toxic environments, and discrimination and racism. Neuropharmacology, 188, Article 108518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108518

Archer

M. S.

(1995). Realist social theory: The morphogenetic approach. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511557675

Assumpta Onyenwe

Onwumere

Ifeoma

P. O.

(2024). Socioeconomic determinants of mental health and substance use: A review and conceptual solutions for public health policy. International Journal of Applied Research in Social Sciences, 6(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.51594/ijarss.v6i3.966

Bailey

Farr

Evans

Ahmed

Ohaeri

O’Gorman

Phillips

Oluwasuji

Dixon

Maimaris

Smith

(2024). All-cause and cause-specific mortality amongst individuals with substance misuse: A population-based linked data study in Wales. International Journal of Population Data Science, 9(5), 307. https://doi.org/10.23889/ijpds.v9i5.2798

Bandura

(1971). Social learning theory. General Learning Press.

Bandura

(1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359

Bellaert

Ruysscher

C. D.

Martinelli

T. F.

Laenen

F. V.

Sinclair

D. L.

Vanderplasschen

(2024). The ambiguous nature of contextual dynamics during drug addiction recovery: A qualitative study of personal narratives. Journal of Drug Issues, 54(4), 608–627. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220426231179381

Connolly

Granfield

(2017). Building recovery capital: The role of faith-based communities in the reintegration of formerly incarcerated drug offenders. Journal of Drug Issues, 47(3), 370–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042617696916

10.

Coogan

(2020). Situating agency in the memoirs of mass incarceration. Rhetoric Review, 39(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/07350198.2019.1690374

11.

Cross

S. E.

Hardin

E. E.

Gercek-Swing

(2010). The what, how, why, and where of self-construal. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(2), 142–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310373752

12.

Donnir

G. M.

Asare-Doku

Boakye

K. E.

(2023). Substance use disorders among adults during imprisonment in a medium security prison: Prevalence and risk indicators. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 33(1), 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2273

13.

Eslami

A. A.

Fathian-Dastgerdi

Ghofranipour

Mostafavi

(2023). Developing and implementing a community-based substance use prevention program in Iranian adolescents (SUPPIA): A study protocol. Journal of Substance Use, 28(3), 410–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2022.2051621

14.

Fahmy

(2021). First weeks out: Social support stability and health among formerly incarcerated men. Social Science & Medicine, 282, Article 114141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114141

15.

Felhi

Hamdi

Chebli

Ridha

(2023). Outcome of offenders with substance use disorder. European Psychiatry, 66(Suppl 1), S672. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.1402

16.

Giddens

(1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579442

17.

Hasmira

M. H.

Rahmi

S. R.

(2023). Community labeling: Former drug convicts become drug convicts again. Digital Press Social Sciences and Humanities, 10, Article 00007. https://doi.org/10.29037/digitalpress.410430

18.

Hassan

Rosly

M. A. A.

(2021). Vocational education and training for young offenders in juvenile approved schools. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 10(1), 642–650. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarped/v10-i1/9620

19.

Ibrahim

Zakaria

Hassan

Kamaluddin

M. R.

Wan Sulaiman

W. S.

Yunos

N. A.

(2022). Relationship between social support and high-risk relapse situation among drug offenders. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 12(1), 1438–1444. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v12-i1/12176

20.

Jegede

(2020). Addiction, race, and the structurally vulnerable. American Journal on Addictions, 29(5), 428–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.13090

21.

Kağıtçıbaşı

Ç.

(2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context implications for self and family. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022105275959

22.

Kağıtçıbaşı

Ç.

(2007a). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203937068

23.

Kağıtçıbaşı

Ç.

(2007b). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203937068

24.

Khantzian

E. J.

(1985). The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(11), 1259–1264. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.11.1259

25.

Kholeif

A. O. R.

Jack

(2019). The paradox of eembedded agency from a strong structuration perspective. Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management, 16(1), 60–92. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRAM-03-2016-0027

26.

Kim

Yang

K.-S.

Hwang

K-K

(2006). Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28662-4

27.

KitzingerJr

R. H.

Gardner

J. A.

Moran

Celkos

Fasano

Linares

Muthee

Royzner

(2023). Habits and routines of adults in early recovery from substance use disorder: Clinical and research implications from a mixed methodology exploratory study. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment, 17, Article 11782218231153844. https://doi.org/10.1177/11782218231153843

28.

Lauzière

Fletcher

Gaboury

(2022). Cultural safety as an outcome of a dynamic relational process: The experience of Inuit in a mainstream residential addiction rehabilitation centre in Southern Canada. Qualitative Health Research, 32(6), 970–984. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323221087540

29.

Littlefield

A. K.

Sher

K. J.

(2016). Personality and substance use disorders. In Sher

K. J.

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of substance use and substance use disorders: Volume 1 (pp. 351–374). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381678.013.006

30.

Liu

Visher

C. A.

(2021). The roles of family, community, and services in the prevention of illicit drug use: Findings from a sample of released prisoners. Journal of Drug Issues, 51(2), 358–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042620984770

31.

Maiese

(2024). Addiction, autonomy, and self-insight. Philosophy Psychiatry and Psychology, 31(4), 351–363. https://doi.org/10.1353/ppp.2024.a948893

32.

Manurung

(2024). The impact of drug abuse on families and society (literature review). MSJ: Majority Science Journal, 2(2), 239–244. https://doi.org/10.61942/msj.v2i2.168

33.

Markowski

K. L.

Jeffrey

A. S. G.

Robin

Harcey

S. R.

(2021). Would i have your support? Family network features and past support exchanges associated with anticipated support for a substance problem. Journal of Substance Use, 28(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2021.2006340

34.

Markus

H. R.

Kitayama

(1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.98.2.224

35.

Mianita

(2023). The role of the family and social networks as agents of social control in Correctional Institution Class I (A case Study in Sukamiskin, Bandung). Ilomata International Journal of Social Science, 4(3), 390–402. https://doi.org/10.52728/ijss.v4i3.820

36.

Mowen

T. J.

John

H. I. V. B.

Schweitzer

(2020). Strain and depression following release from prison: The moderating role of social support mechanisms on substance use. Deviant Behavior, 41(6), 750–764. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1595372

37.

Mukherjee

Mahintamani

(2023). Substance use disorder and prison: Special focus on opioid dependence. Academic Bulletin of Mental Health, 1(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.25259/abmh_8_2023

38.

Mulhern

J. P.

(2022a). Consideration of social determinants risks in substance use disorder assessment and treatment plan formulation. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 33(3), 200–202. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000473

39.

Mulhern

J. P.

(2022b). Consideration of social determinants risks in substance use disorder assessment and treatment plan formulation. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 33(3). 200, 202. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000473

40.

Narayanan

Rao

(2023). Self-efficacy in the urban Indian culture-exploring values, self-construal and personality. International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health, 10(2), 656–661. https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20230216

41.

Ocampo

M. A. O.

César Guillermo

P. S.

Sánchez

Casillas

Cicero

(2020). In Rodríguez-Landa

J. F.

Cueto-Escobedo

(Eds.), Comprehensive attention with a harm reduction perspective for psychoactive substances consumers in a third level hospital. Intech Open. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91150

42.

Okech

Hansen

N. B.

Howard

Anarfi

J. K.

Burns

A. C.

(2018). Social support, dysfunctional coping, and community reintegration as predictors of ptsd among human trafficking survivors. Behavioral Medicine, 44(3), 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2018.1432553

43.

Olsson

M. O.

Öjehagen

Brådvik

Håkansson

(2015). Predictors of psychiatric hospitalization in Ex-Prisoners with substance use problems: A data-linkage study. Journal of Drug Issues, 45(2), 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042615575374

44.

Ozbay

Akbas

O. Z.

Kokturk

G. V.

(2025). Tests of social bonding, differential association/social learning, strain theories, and cigarette use among adolescents in Türkiye. Journal of Drug Issues, 55(3), 450–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220426241234816

45.

Park

M. S.-A.

Chirkov

(2020). Editorial: Culture, self, and autonomy. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00736

46.

Payá Castiblanque

Beneyto Calatayud

P. J.

(2020). Inequalities and the impact of job insecurity on health indicators in the Spanish workforce. Sustainability, 12(Issue 16), 6425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166425

47.

Peart

S. J.

Niekerk

L. V.

Norris

(2024). A tale of two prisons: Investigating the social climate of small prisons using a mixed methods design. Journal of Criminology, 58(2), 258–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/26338076241277391

48.

Plettinckx

Harth

Damian

Degreef

Dirkx

De Smet

Gremeaux

(2023). A mixed methods study about health problems and drug use in belgian Prisons during 2021-2022. European Journal of Public Health, 33(Suppl 2), ckad160.1122. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckad160.1122

49.

Pourramazani

Sharifi

Iranpour

(2019). Social capital and its relationship with drug use among Southeast Iranian Adolescents. Addiction & Health, 11(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.22122/ahj.v11i1.230

50.

Pratidina

A. G.

Anwar

(2024). The influence of family support and self-adjustment on motivation to recover in prisoners of narcotics cases in Class IIA Purwokerto Correctional Institutions. Jurnal Kajian Pendidikan Dan Psikologi, 2(1), 84–90. https://doi.org/10.61397/jkpp.v2i1.67

51.

Rahmi

Erianjoni

(2022). Public labeling of adolescents of former drug convicts. LANGGAM: International Journal of Social Science Education, Art and Culture, 1(2), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.24036/langgam.v1i02.8

52.

Rokiyah

Zuanda

Alrefi

Akbari

(2024). The role of social support in substance addiction recovery: A systematic review. Edusoshum: Journal of Islamic Education and Social Humanities, 4(2), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.52366/edusoshum.v4i2.112

53.

Rosner

Neicun

Yang

J. C.

Roman-Urrestarazu

(2021). Substance use among sexual minorities in the US – Linked to inequalities and unmet need for mental health treatment? Results from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). Journal of Psychiatric Research, 135, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.12.023

54.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

55.

Sari

Ruzain

Fadhlia

(2023). The relationship between family social support and the resilience of former drug addicts. Indonesian Journal of Economics, Social, and Humanities, 5(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.31258/ijesh.5.1.43-53

56.

Schliehe

Laursen

Crewe

(2021). Loneliness in prison. European Journal of Criminology, 19(6), 1595–1614. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370820988836

57.

Schlunegger

M. C.

Zumstein-Shaha

Palm

(2024). Methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies: A scoping review. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 46(8), 611–622. https://doi.org/10.1177/01939459241263011

58.

Shafiq

Fatima

(2023). Lived experiences of patients with substance use disorders: A phenomenological mixed methods study. Pakistan Journal of Social Research, 5(2), 896–904. https://doi.org/10.52567/pjsr.v5i02.1202

59.

Stones

(2005a). Structuration theory. Palgrave-Macmillan.

60.

Stones

(2005b). Structuration theory. Palgrave-Macmillan.

61.

Supriyanto

Hendiani

Hartini

Sabri

(2021). Addiction counselor profession: Perception of family support for recovering from drug abuse addiction. Counsellia: Jurnal Bimbingan Dan Konseling, 11(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.25273/counsellia.v11i1.8585

62.

Sutrisno

Fawzi

Saifullah

(2020). The influence of a family support group on the motivation of drug users undergoing the rehabilitation process in Syifa Medika Clinic Addiction Rehabilitation Center. Jurnal Ners, 15(1Sp), 470–472. https://doi.org/10.20473/jn.v15i1Sp.20511

63.

Testa

Tsai

(2024). Family member incarceration and loneliness among low-Income U.S. Veterans. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 94(3), 352–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000736

64.

Tyndall

(2019). The North American overdose crisis: How structural violence, prohibition and stigma have paralyzed our response. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 95(Suppl 1), A15. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2019-sti.40

65.

van Buitenen

Meijers

van den Berg

C. J. W.

Harte

J. M.

(2023). Investigating the prevalence of problematic substance use and mental disorders in a large sample of prisoners with mental illness: Network analysis. BJPsych Open, 9(4), Article e122. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2023.514

66.

Vignoles

V. L.

Owe

Becker

Smith

P. B.

Easterbrook

M. J.

Brown

González

Didier

Carrasco

Cadena

M. P.

Lay

Schwartz

S. J.

Des Rosiers

S. E.

Villamar

J. A.

Gavreliuc

Zinkeng

Kreuzbauer

Baguma

Martin

Bond

M. H.

(2016). Beyond the “East-west” dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 145(8), 966–1000. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000175

67.

Wastuti

S. N. Y.

Lesmana

(2019). Enhancement self efficacy with counseling services technical self management to convicted criminal in jail Class II B Labuhan Deli 2018. In Proceedings of the 4th progressive and fun education international conference (PFEIC 2019) (pp. 101–105). https://doi.org/10.2991/pfeic-19.2019.20

68.

Were

Okoyo

Araka

Kanyi

Echoka

Mwandawiro

Njomo

(2020). Socioeconomic disparities in drugs and substance abuse: Results from a household cross-sectional survey in Murang’ a County, Kenya. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-30782/v2

69.

Whitehead

L. J.

(2023). Exploring the prevalence of loneliness and social isolation in an analysis of safeguarding adults reviews in South Yorkshire. The Journal of Adult Protection, 25(6), 351–366. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAP-04-2023-0015

70.

Yahaya

R. J.

Dantsoho

F. A.

(2020). Prevalence of substance abuse, assessment of socio-economic and demo-graphic determinants of commercial motorcyclists in Katsina State Nigeria. African Journal of Health Sciences, 33(1), 49–55.

71.

Yanthan

S. S.

Singh

(2024). The role of family dynamics and social support in substance use recovery within the Naga Society. International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, 6(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2024.v06i03.17763