We tested the assumption that theories of drug use are able to account for behavior across varying contexts and populations by examining whether control, learning, and elaborated theories provide similar explanations for adolescent drug use in adjacent generations. We used data from the Rochester Youth Development Study and Rochester Intergenerational Study which followed a sample of adolescents starting at age 14 and their oldest biological child. Cross-generational analysis between theoretical variables measured at age 14 and drug use measured at approximately ages 15 and 16 were used. Regression models testing for each theoretical framework found that in general, they appear to operate similarly in adjacent generations. We conducted 14 tests of equality for pairs of coefficients across the generations; no statistically significant differences were observed. Overall, these theories offer general explanations for adolescent drug use with respect to risk and protective factors for parents and their children. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed.
AgnewR. (1985). Social control theory and delinquency: A longitudinal test. Criminology, 23, 47-61.
2.
AgnewR. (1991). A longitudinal test of social control theory and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 28, 126-156.
3.
AkersR. L. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
4.
AkersR. L.LeeG. (1996). A longitudinal test of social learning theory: Adolescent smoking. Journal of Drug Issues, 26, 317-343.
5.
AkersR. L.LeeG. (1999). Age, social learning, and social bonding in adolescent substance use. Deviant Behavior, 20, 1-25.
6.
AlexanderJ. F.RobbinsM. S. (2011). Functional family therapy. New York, NY: Springer.
7.
BahrS. J.HoffmannJ. P.YangX. (2005). Parental and peer influences on the risk of adolescent drug use. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 26, 529-551.
8.
BaileyJ. A.HillK. G.OesterleS.HawkinsJ. D. (2006). Linking substance use and problem behavior across three generations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 263-282.
9.
BaileyJ. A.HillK. G.OesterleS.HawkinsJ. D. (2009). Parenting practices and problem behavior across three generations: Monitoring, harsh discipline, and drug use in the intergenerational transmission of externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1214-1226.
10.
BanduraA. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
11.
BesemerS.FarringtonD. P. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour: Conviction trajectories of fathers and their children. European Journal of Criminology, 9, 120-141.
12.
BoothJ. A.FarrellA.VaranoS. P. (2008). Social control, serious delinquency, and risky behavior: A gendered analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 423-456.
13.
BotvinG. J.BakerE.BotvinE. M.DiazT. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a White middle-class population. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 14, 1106-1112.
14.
BrooksF. M.MagnussonJ.SpencerN.MorganA. (2012). Adolescent multiple risk behavior: An asset approach to the role of family, school and community. Journal of Public Health, 34, 48-56.
15.
CapaldiD. M.PearsK. C.KerrD. C. R. (2012). The Oregon youth study three-generational study: Theory, design, and findings. The International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development Bulletin, 62, 29-33.
16.
CatalanoR. F.HawkinsJ. D. (1996). The social development model: A theory of antisocial behavior. In HawkinsJ. D. (Ed.), Delinquency and crime: Current theories (pp. 149-197). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
17.
CernkovichS. A.GiordanoP. C. (1992). School bonding, race, and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 261-291.
18.
CongerR. D.NepplT.KimK. J.ScaramellaL. V. (2003). Angry and aggressive behavior across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 143-160.
19.
DaigleL. E.CullenF. T.WrightJ. P. (2007). Gender differences in the predictors of juvenile delinquency: Assessing the generality-specificity debate. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 254-286.
20.
EllicksonP. L.HaysR. D. (1992). On becoming involved with drugs: Modeling adolescent drug use over time. Health Psychology, 11, 377-385.
21.
ElliottD. S.HuizingaD.AgetonS. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
22.
FarringtonD. P.TtofiM. M.CragoR. V.CoidJ. W. (2014, May). Risk factors versus offending in two successive generations of males. Paper presented at the meeting of the Life History Research Society, Pittsburgh, PA.
23.
FordJ. A. (2005). Substance use, the social bond, and delinquency. Sociological Inquiry, 75, 109-128.
24.
GardnerL.ShoemakerD. J. (1989). Social bonding and delinquency: A comparative analysis. The Sociological Quarterly, 30, 481-499.
25.
GoldmanD.OrosziG.DucciF. (2005). The genetics of addictions: Uncovering the genes. Nature Reviews Genetics, 6, 521-532.
26.
GreenbergD. F. (1999). The weak strength of social control theory. Crime & Delinquency, 45, 66-81.
27.
HawkinsJ. D.CatalanoR. F.MillerJ. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64-105.
28.
HawkinsJ. D.Von CleveE.CatalanoR. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208-217.
29.
HawkinsJ. D.WeisJ. G. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73-97.
30.
HeimerK.De CosterS. (1999). The gendering of violent delinquency. Criminology, 37, 277-318.
31.
HenggelerS. W.SchoenwaldS. K.BorduinC. K.RowlandM. D.CunninghamP. B. (2009). Multisystemic therapy for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
32.
HirschiT. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
IannottiR. J.BushP. J.WeinfurtK. P. (1996). Perception of friends’ use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana among urban schoolchildren: A longitudinal analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 21, 615-632.
35.
JohnsonM. C.MorrisR. G.MenardS. (2015). Historical invariance in delinquency causation: A test of equivalent models of delinquency for two generations of adolescents. Crime & Delinquency, 61, 1283-1310.
36.
JohnsonR. E.MarcosA. C.BahrS. J. (1987). The role of peers in the complex etiology of adolescent drug use. Criminology, 25, 323-340.
37.
JungerM.MarshallI. H. (1997). The interethnic generalizability of social control theory: An empirical test. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 34, 79-112.
38.
KaplanH. B.LiuX. (1999). Explaining transgenerational continuity in antisocial behavior during early adolescence. In CohenP.SlomkowskiC.RobinsL. N. (Eds.), Historical and geographical influences on psychopathology (pp. 163-191). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39.
KempfK. L. (1993). The empirical status of Hirschi’s control theory. In AdlerF. A.LauferW. S. (Eds.), Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 4: New directions in criminological theory (pp. 143-187). Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
40.
KerrD. C. R.CapaldiD. M.PearsK. C.OwenL. D. (2012). Intergenerational influences on early alcohol use: Independence from the problem behavior pathway. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 889-906.
41.
KnightK. E.MenardS.SimmonsS. B. (2014). Intergenerational continuity of substance use. Substance Use & Misuse, 49, 221-233.
42.
KrautR.PattersonM.LundmarkV.KieslerS.MukophadhyayT.ScherlisW. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being?American Psychologist, 53, 1017-1031.
43.
KreekM. J.NielsenD. A.ButelmanE. R.LaForgeK. S. (2005). Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1450-1457.
44.
KrohnM. D.LizotteA. J.ThornberryT. P.SmithC. A.McDowallD. (1996). Reciprocal causal relationships among drug use, peers, and beliefs: A five-wave panel model. Journal of Drug Issues, 26, 405-428.
45.
KrohnM. D.MasseyJ. L. (1980). Social control and delinquent behavior: An examination of the elements of the social bond. Sociological Quarterly, 21, 529-543.
46.
KrohnM. D.SkinnerW. F.MasseyJ. L.AkersR. L. (1985). Social learning theory and adolescent cigarette smoking: A longitudinal study. Social Problems, 32, 445-473.
47.
KrohnM. D.ThornberryT. P. (1999). Retention of minority populations in panel studies of drug use. Drugs & Society, 14, 185-207.
48.
KubrinC. E.StuckyT. D.KrohnM. D. (2009). Researching theories of crime and deviance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
49.
LoeberR.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1986). Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In MorrisN.TonryM. (Eds.), Crime and Justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 7, pp. 29-149). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
50.
MarcosA. C.BahrS. J. (1988). Control theory and adolescent drug use. Youth & Society, 19, 395-425.
51.
MarcosA. C.BahrS. J.JohnsonR. E. (1986). Test of a bonding/association theory of adolescent drug use. Social Forces, 65, 135-161.
52.
MatsuedaR. L.HeimerK. (1987). Race, family structure, and delinquency: A test of differential association and social control theories. American Sociological Review, 52, 826-840.
53.
MenardS.ElliottD. S. (1994). Delinquent bonding, moral beliefs, and illegal behavior: A three-wave panel model. Justice Quarterly, 11, 173-188.
54.
MenardS.JohnsonM. C. (2015). An intergenerational test of integrated theory. Deviant Behavior, 36, 87-100.
55.
MihalicS.FaganA.IrwinK.BallardD.ElliottD. S. (2002). Blueprints for violence prevention replications: Factors for implementation success. Boulder: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, University of Colorado.
56.
OdgersC.CaspiA. L.NaginD.PiqueroA. R.SlutskeW. S.MilneB. J.. . . MoffittT. E. (2008). Is it important to prevent early exposure to drugs and alcohol among adolescents?Psychological Science, 19, 1037-1044.
57.
O’KeeffeG. S.Clarke-PearsonK. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127, 800-804.
58.
PaternosterR.IovanniL. (1986). The deterrent effect of perceived severity: A re-examination. Social Forces, 64, 751-777.
59.
PiqueroN. L.GoverA. R.MacDonaldJ. M.PiqueroA. R. (2005). The influence of delinquent peers on delinquency: Does gender matter?Youth & Society, 36, 251-275.
60.
PoldermanT. J.BenyaminB.De LeeuwC. A.SullivanP. F.Van BochovenA.VisscherP. M.PosthumaD. (2015). Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nature Genetics, 47, 702-709.
61.
PrattT. C.CullenF. T.SellersC. S.WinfreeL. T.Jr.MadensenT. D.DaigleL. E.. . . GauJ. M. (2010). The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 27, 765-802.
62.
SigfusdottirI. D.KristjanssonA. L.AgnewR. (2012). A comparative analysis of general strain theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 117-127.
63.
SkinnerB. F. (1951). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
64.
SmithC. A.LizotteA. J.ThornberryT. P.KrohnM. D. (1995). Resilient youth: Identifying factors that prevent high-risk youth from engaging in delinquency and drug use. In HaganJ. (Ed.), Delinquency and disrepute in the life course (pp. 217-247). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
65.
SutherlandE. H. (1939). Principles of criminology. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott.
66.
ThornberryT. P. (1987). Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Criminology, 25, 863-891.
67.
ThornberryT. P. (2013). Life course continuity and change in antisocial behavior (Final Report for Grant 5R01MH063386). Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
68.
ThornberryT. P.Freeman-GallantA.LizotteA. J.KrohnM. D.SmithC. A. (2003). Linked lives: The intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 171-184.
69.
ThornberryT. P.Freeman-GallantA.LovegroveP. J. (2009). Intergenerational linkages in antisocial behavior. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19, 80-93.
70.
ThornberryT. P.KrohnM. D. (2005). Applying interactional theory to the explanation of continuity and change in antisocial behavior. In FarringtonD. P. (Ed.), Integrated developmental and life-course theories of offending (pp. 183-209). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
71.
ThornberryT. P.LizotteA. J.KrohnM. D.FarnworthM.JangS. J. (1991). Testing interactional theory: An examination of reciprocal causal relationships among family, school, and delinquency. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 3-35.
72.
VakalahiH. F. (2001). Adolescent substance use and family-based risk and protective factors: A literature review. Journal of Drug Education, 31, 29-46.
73.
VazsonyiA. T.BellistonL. M. (2007). The family → low self-control → deviance: A cross-cultural and cross-national test of self-control theory. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 505-530.
74.
WiatrowskiM. D.GriswoldD. B.RobertsM. K. (1981). Social control theory and delinquency. American Sociological Review, 46, 525-541.
