Findings from representative national surveys in Algeria and Jordan show that neither religious orientations, judgments about Western culture, nor economic circumstances account for variance in approval of terrorist acts against U.S. targets. Alternatively, in both countries, approval of terrorism against the United States is disproportionately likely among men and women with negative judgments about their own government and about U.S. foreign policy. Taken together, these findings suggest that approval of terrorism is fostered by negative attitudes toward actors considered responsible for the political and economic status quo. Given that Algeria and Jordan have had different experiences with respect to terrorism and also differ in demographic, political, and economic structure, identical findings from these dissimilar countries suggest that the observed relationships are not country specific and may apply more generally.
Alexander, C.2000. Opportunities, organizations, and ideas: Islamists and ideas in Tunisia and Algeria. International Journal of Middle East Studies32:465-90.
2.
Amawi, A.1992. Democracy dilemmas in Jordan. Middle East Report174:26-29.
3.
Amos, D.2004. Iraq's Arab neighbors: Anti-Americanism runs high. All things considered. National Public Radio, October 22.
4.
Anderson, L.1997. Fulfilling prophecies: State policy and Islamist radicalism. In Political Islam: Revolution, radicalism, or reform?, edited by J. Esposito, 17-31. Boulder: Lynn Reiner.
5.
Atran, S.2002. In Gods we trust: The evolutionary landscape of religion (Evolution and Cognition Series). New York: Oxford University Press.
6.
———. 2003a. Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science299 (5612): 1534-9.
7.
———. 2003b. Who wants to be a martyr? New York Times , May 7.
8.
Ayalon, A.2002. Fighting terrorism: Lessons from the front line. In War on terror: The Middle East dimension, edited by R. B. Satloff, 3-7. Washington DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
9.
Bandura, A.1990. Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In Origins of terrorism, edited by W. Reich and W. Laqueur, 161-91. Washington, DC : Woodrow Wilson Center.
10.
Barber, B.2003. Heart and stones: Palestinian youth from the Intifada . New York: St. Martin's.
11.
Bennani-Chraibi, M.1993. Les représentations du monde des jeunes Marocains [The view of the world of young Moroccans]. Thèse de doctorat de l' Institut d'Etudes Politiques, Paris.
12.
Berman, S.2003. Islamism, revolution, and civil society. PS: Political Science and Politics. 1:257-72.
13.
Bernard, C.2004. Five pillars of democracy: How the West can promote an Islamic reformation. Rand Review (Spring). http://www.rand.org/publications/randreview/issues/spring2004/pillars.html (accessed on February 11, 2007).
14.
Berribi, C.2003. Evidence about the link between education, poverty and terrorism among Palestinians. Princeton University Industrial Relations Section Working Paper no. 477, September. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=487467 (accessed on February 11, 2007).
15.
Brand, L.1999. Arab women and political liberalization: Challenges and opportunities. In Democratization and its limits: Lessons from Asia, Latin America and the Middle East, edited by Howard Handelman and Mark Tessler, 242-61. South Bend, IN: Notre Dame University Press.
16.
Collier, P., and A. Hoeffler2000. Greed and grievance in civil war. World Bank Policy Research Paper 2355, World Bank, Washington, DC.
17.
Crenshaw, M.2000. The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century . Political Psychology21:405-20.
18.
Entelis, J.1988. Algeria under Chadli: Liberalization without democratization or, perestroika, yes; glasnost, no. Middle East Insight (Fall):47-64.
19.
Esposito, J.2002. Unholy war: Terror in the name of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press.
20.
Garfinkle, A.2004. Anti-Americanism, U.S. foreign policy, and the war on terrorism. In A practical guide to winning the war on terrorism , edited by A. Garfinkle, 197-218. Palo Alto, CA: Hoover Books Online. http://www.hoover.org/publications/books/3009071.html (accessed on February 11, 2007).
21.
Ginges, J., and A. Merari.2003. When do people decide to kill for a cause? Testing a social identity explanation of variance in the extremism of political behavior within an aggrieved population. Unpublished paper. TheNew School for Social Research, New York/Tel Aviv University.
22.
Glazov, J.2004. Hating America. FrontPageMagazine.com, August 12. Available at http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=14624 (accessed on February 11, 2007).
23.
Grant, P.R., and R. Brown.1995. From ethnocentrism to collective protest: Responses to relative deprivation and threats to social identity. Social Psychology Quarterly58:195-212.
24.
Guimond, S., and L. Dube-Simard.1983. Relative deprivation theory and the Quebec nationalist movement. The cognition-emotion distinction and the personal-group deprivation issue. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology44:526-35.
25.
Haddad, S., and H. Khashan.2002. Islam and terrorism: Lebanese Muslim views on September 11. Journal of Conflict Resolution46:812-28.
26.
Hafez, M.2004. From marginalization to massacres: A political process explanation of GIA violence in Algeria. In Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, edited by Q. Wiktorowicz, 37-60. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
27.
Hamarneh, M.2005. Revisiting the Arab street: Research from within. Amman, Jordan: Center for Strategic Studies, University of Jordan. http://www.css-jordan.org/new/REVISITINGTTHEARABSTREETReport.pdf (accessed on February 11, 2007).
28.
Harik, J.P.1996. Between Islam and the System: Sources and implications of popular support for Lebanon's Hizballah. Journal of Conflict Resolution. 40:41-67.
29.
Hassan, N.2001. An arsenal of believers. The New Yorker , November 19.
30.
Hoffman, B.2003. Al Qaeda, trends in terrorism and future potentialities: An assessment. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. http://www.rand.org/publications/P/P8078/P8078.pdf (accessed on February 11, 2007). Huntington, S.1993. The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs72 (Summer):22-49.
31.
———. 1996. The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order . New York: Simon & Schuster . Ismail, S.2001. The paradox of Islamist politics. Middle East Report221:34-39.
32.
Kalyvas, S.2000. Commitment problems in emerging democracies: The case of religious parties. Comparative Politics32:379-98.
33.
Kasfir, N.2002. Dilemmas of popular support in guerilla war: The National Resistance Army in Uganda, 1981-86. Journal of Modern African Studies43:271-96.
34.
Krueger, A.B., and J. Maleckova.2002. Does poverty cause terrorism? The economics and the education of suicide bombers. The New Republic, June 24.
35.
Kushner, H.1996. Suicide bombers: Business as usual. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism19:329-38. Lewis, B.1990. The roots of Muslim rage: Why so many Muslims deeply resent the West and why their bitterness will not be easily mollified. Atlantic Monthly266 (September): 47-60.
36.
———. 2002. What went wrong: Western impact and Middle Eastern response . New York: Oxford University Press .
37.
Lindberg, T.2005. Does Anti-Americanism matter to American foreign policy ? Opening remarks, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Central European University conference. Washington, DC, November 3.
38.
Martinez, L.2005. Why the violence in Algeria? In Islam, democracy and the state in Algeria: Lessons for the Western Mediterranean and beyond, edited by M. Bonner, M. Reif, and M. Tessler, 14-27. London : Routledge.
39.
Merari, A.2002a. Deterring fear: Government responses to terrorist attacks . Harvard International Review23:26-31.
40.
———. 2002b. Deterring terrorism: States, organizations, individuals . Justice31:3-6. Mishal, S., and A Sela.2000. The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, violence, and coexistence. New York: Columbia University Press.
41.
Moghaddam, A.2003. Palestinian suicide terrorism in the second intifada: Motivations and organizational aspects. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 26:65-92.
42.
Moghaddam, F.2005. The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration . American Psychologist60: 161-9.
43.
Munoz-Rojas, D.2003. Violations of international humanitarian law: Their psycho-sociological causes and prevention. The Armed Groups Project, International Committee of the Red Cross. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.armedgroups.org/images/stories/pdfs/munoz_paper_3.pdf (accessed on February 11, 2007).
44.
Nachtwey, J., and M. Tessler.1999. Explaining women's support for political Islam: Contributions from feminist theory. In Area studies and social science: Strategies for understanding Middle East politics, edited by M. Tessler with J. Nachtwey and A. Banda, 102-20. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
45.
———. 2002. The political economy of attitudes toward peace among Palestinians and Israelis. Journal of Conflict Resolution46:260-85.
46.
O'Neill, W.2002. Beyond the slogans: How can the UN respond to terrorism ? International Peace Academy, United Nations, New York. http://www.fesny.org/docus/peacesec/responding_to_terrorism.pdf (accessed on February 11, 2007).
47.
Paz, R.1998. Is Hamas reevaluating the use of terrorism? Institute for Counter-Terrorism, Herzliya, Israel. http://www.ict.org.il/apage/5402.php (accessed on February 11, 2007).
48.
———. 2001. Radical Islamist terrorism. Institute for Counter-Terrorism, Herzliya, Israel. http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=367 (accessed on February 11, 2007).
49.
———. 2003. Islamists and anti-Americanism. Middle East Review of International Affairs7:53-61.
50.
Pedahzur, A., A. Perliger, and L. Weinberg.2003. Altruism and fatalism: The characteristics of Palestinian suicide terrorists. Deviant Behavior24:405-23.
51.
Pew Research Center.2005. Global opinion: The spread of Anti-Americanism. Pew Research Center , Trends 2005. http://pewresearch.org/trends/trends2005-global.pdf (accessed on February 11, 2007)
52.
Post, J.M.1987. Rewarding fire with fire: Effects of retaliation on terrorist group-dynamics. Terrorism10:23-35.
53.
Ross, J.I.1993. Structural causes of oppositional political terrorism: Towards a causal model. Journal of Peace Research30:317-29.
54.
Rubin, B.2002. The real roots of Arab Anti-Americanism. Foreign Affairs81 (Nov./Dec.):73-85.
55.
Sahliyeh, E.2005. The state and the Islamic movement in Jordan. Journal of Church and State47:109-31.
56.
Saleh, B.2003. Economic conditions and resistance to occupation in the West Bank and Gaza Strip: There is a causal connection. Paper presented to the Graduate Student Forum, Kansas State University, April 4.
57.
Shamir, J., and K. Shikaki.2002. Self-serving perceptions of terrorism among Israelis and Palestinians. Political Psychology23:537-57.
——. 2006. Ramallah: Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research . PSR poll 19, March 16-18. http://www.pcpsr.org/survey/polls/2006/p19e.html (accessed on February 11, 2007)
60.
Sprinzak, E.1990. The psychopolitical formation of extreme left terrorism in a democracy: The case of the Weathermen. In Origins of terrorism , edited by W.Reich , 65-86. New York: Cambridge University Press.
61.
Suleiman, M.1987. Attitudes, values and the political process in Morocco . In The political economy of Morocco, edited by I. W. Zartman, 98-116. New York: Praeger.
62.
Telhami, S.2006. Reflections of hearts and minds: Media, opinion, and identity in the Arab world. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
63.
Tessler, M.1997. The origins of popular support for Islamist movements: A political economy analysis. In Islam, democracy, and the state in North Africa , edited by J. Entelis , 93-126. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
64.
———. 2003. Arab and Muslim political attitudes: Stereotypes and evidence from survey research. International Studies Perspectives4:175-80.
65.
———. 2004. The nature and determinants of Arab attitudes toward Israel . In Contemporary anti-semitism: Canada and the world, edited by D. Penslar and J.Stein, 96-119. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
66.
———. 2005. The view from the street: The attitudes and values of ordinary Algerians. In Islam, democracy and the state in Algeria: Lessons for the Western Mediterranean and beyond, edited by M. Bonner, M. Reif, and M. Tessler, 184-201. London: Routledge.
67.
Tessler, M., and J. Nachtwey.1998. Islam and attitudes toward international conflict: Evidence from survey research in the Arab world. Journal of Conflict Resolution42:619-36.
68.
Weinstein, J.2005. Resources and the information problem in rebel recruitment . Journal of Conflict Resolution49:598-624.
69.
Wiktorowicz, Q.2004. Introduction. In Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, edited by Q. Wiktorowicz , 1-33. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
70.
Wilgoren, J.2001. After the attacks: The hijackers; a terrorist profile that confounds the experts. New York Times, September 15.
71.
Winep2003. Anti-Americanism—Due to what the U.S. is or what the U.S. does? Special Policy Forum report of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, December 2.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
