Abstract
Coping with chronically variable yields of food crops is critical for the survival of farm households in marginal environments where agro-climatic conditions are challenging. As such, to alleviate the effects of climate change, rural households implement various strategies, including community nutrition gardening, to tackle livelihood-related challenges. This study examines the role of community nutrition gardening as a strategy for adapting to climate change in a village within the Lupane District of Matabeleland North province in Zimbabwe. Employing a qualitative case study approach grounded in Climate Change Adaptation theory, data was gathered through 29 in-depth interviews, one focus group discussion and insights from five key informants. The findings indicate that community nutrition gardens significantly contribute to strengthening household resilience in the face of climate change and its variability. Anecdotal evidence indicates that community nutrition gardens positively impacted household well-being, purchasing power, asset accumulation and social capital. The gardens further enhanced food security, nutrition and dietary diversity for families. However, during discussions, participants identified several barriers to the expansion of the community nutrition garden initiative, including limited institutional support, challenges related to water rights and the absence of collateral. To effectively integrate community nutrition gardening into climate change adaptation efforts, there is a pressing need for a targeted rural development policy. Specifically, actions should focus on improving access to water, credit and markets.
Introduction
The principles of localisation are widely recognised as essential for effective development (Schugurensky and Mook, 2024). Ongoing discussions about localisation primarily focus on enhancing local funding, bolstering national capabilities, improving coordination and participation, fostering national partnerships and amplifying local visibility and influence (Brun-Martos and Lesley, 2020; Davidson et al., 2022). This also involves a greater emphasis on recognising, valuing and empowering civil society’s decision-making authority and the leadership of local entities (Berardi et al., 2020; UNDP, 1996; Vij, 2023). Climate change has far-reaching effects on the livelihoods of people around the world. Rural communities, particularly those dependent on rain-fed agriculture, are among the most impacted groups by climate change (Chiwanza et al., 2015; Nyathi, 2024). While community gardening offers various benefits to these rural populations, many households still face significant challenges in achieving food self-sufficiency (Sasu, 2024).
Climate change, largely driven by anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other human activities, has roots that trace back to the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century in Europe (Barna, 2021). This is the time when the widespread burning of fossil fuels began to power factories and transportation (Little, 2023), thereby generating huge amounts of harmful GHGs. Generated GHG leads to global warming, which results in climate change, thereby causing climate-induced hazards and weather extremes like droughts, extreme heat and heatwaves, floods, extreme snow, tropical cyclones, sea-level rise and biodiversity loss (Madamombe et al, 2024). Kotir (2011) highlights that Sub-Saharan Africa is considered the most vulnerable continent to global climate change, primarily due to its dependence on rain-fed agriculture. The World Meteorological Organization (2024) reports that over 110 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa were directly impacted by weather and climate-related hazards in 2022. Sasu (2024) points out that since 1970, climate hazards have led to the deaths of more than 730,000 individuals in Africa. Addressing climate hazards and related impacts, particularly those associated with vulnerability and adaptation demands local action, thereby bringing to the fore the concept of localisation (Chazovachii et al., 2013; Berardi et al., 2020).
Initially, the concept of localisation was framed as a process aimed at granting greater decision-making authority, funding, leadership and power to local and national actors at every stage of humanitarian response (Davidson et al., 2022). This approach is rooted in the understanding that local communities affected by crises (including climate change) have often been sidelined by the international community in decision-making processes impacting their lives, despite their deeper insight into local contexts and needs (Bornnard, 2010; Vij, 2023). In addition, funding models tend to favour large international non-governmental organisations, leaving local non-governmental organisations underfunded, even though they are typically the first responders and the last to depart, bearing significant risks in fragile environments. Barna (2021) notes that approximately 85% of the world’s population is already feeling the effects of human-induced climate change. According to (WHO, 2023), 3.6 billion people live in areas highly susceptible to climate change. The organisation further indicates that in 2020, climate change contributed to food insecurity for 98 million individuals. Baars, et al. (2023) highlight that climate change significantly affects the physical health of rural populations by diminishing food security, leading to poor nutrition and hunger. Rising temperatures and increasingly frequent droughts have adversely affected farming and livestock production in rural Zimbabwe, where a significant portion of the population relies on rain-fed agriculture (Madamombe et al., 2024). The effects of climate change have been felt across the food supply chain due to floods, hurricanes and droughts (Nyathi et al., 2022). As a result, it has led to food security risks resulting from food production and price volatility. Climate is now the primary determinant of agricultural productivity and, in this respect, climate and food availability are deeply intertwined. Lemke (2016) notes that 30% of Zimbabwe’s rural population faces food insecurity, particularly in areas that have experienced limited or no rainfall over the years. Climate change-induced water scarcity has further constrained agricultural output in Matabeleland South Province over the past few decades (Musarurwa and Lunga, 2012; Nyathi et al., 2022).
The study was underpinned by the Locally Led Adaptation (LLA) perspective (Grant and Osanloo, 2014). The LLA strategy is an approach that supports local people, institutions and networks to lead decisions over how, when, and where to adapt and have equitable access to power and resources to supplement local knowledge and expertise (UNHCR, 2022; Vincent, 2023). LLA utilises local knowledge, community engagement, locally appropriate funding mechanisms, equity-centred programming and context-specific strategies to enhance the ability of communities to adapt to climate impacts (Croese et al., 2021). By empowering local actors and recognising contextual vulnerabilities, adaptation efforts can address historical imbalances of power and be more grounded in the realities of the communities most affected by climate hazards (Nyathi, 2024). While all nations face the impacts of environmental change, each has unique vulnerabilities influenced by local geographic, political and social contexts (Vincent, 2023). Research on rural climate change has shown that adaptation and mitigation strategies differ from one location to another (UNHR, 2022). As a result, a singular global governance approach is inadequate (Romero-Lankao et al., 2018). This led to the concept of localisation, which focuses on enhancing communication, strengthening local capacities and promoting mutual learning among various stakeholders (Croese et al., 2021).
A key aspect of LLA is its ability to shift power away from centralised authorities (UNHCR, 2022). When local actors have decision-making power over finance, they are often able to implement adaptation programmes more effectively, efficiently and transparently (Ndlovu et al., 2024). With recognition of the value of local knowledge surrounding context-specific complexities, existing capacities and networks are leveraged and local actors are included in programmatic decision-making processes (Vincent, 2023). A more inclusive and transparent approach that includes local ownership and knowledge aligns adaptation investment with local aspirations, goals and needs—keeping costs lower in the long term and reducing risks for private sector investors (Mulder, 2023). The LLA approach was used in this study because it prioritises the transfer of resources and decision-making towards local actors affected by climate change, as well as to affirm respect for local knowledge, capabilities and institutions that foster local resilience (Croese et al., 2021). Specifically, the approach emphasises empowering communities to develop and implement their own strategies for resilience (Adger et al., 2009; UNHR, 2022). The approach recognises that local knowledge, local capacities and local resources are crucial in addressing the specific impact of climate change (Mulder, 2023). Despite widespread enthusiasm for more locally led ways of working, progress has been slow and significant barriers remain (Romero-Lankao et al., 2018; Mulder, 2023). Given the foregoing, this paper aims to answer the following questions: What are the characteristics of households involved in community gardens? How are the communities in the study affected by the impact of climate change? How do community nutrition gardens reconfigure gender and power structures in the community? What kind of partnership and capacity building enhances the effectiveness of community nutrition gardens in the community? The study focuses on Mhlahlandlela village in the Lupane District of Matabeleland North province in Zimbabwe. The village was selected because it has a number of households that depend on community gardens.
Methods and materials
The study was conducted in Mhlahlandlela village, situated in ward 26 of the Lupane district within Matabeleland North Province, Zimbabwe. The village is located 174 km from Bulawayo along the road leading to Victoria Falls. Dube and Sibanda (2022) indicate that ‘Lupane’ derives from the Tonga term ‘Lupale’, meaning dry land. The two further argue that highlight that the region’s infertile soils make it unsuitable for crop production. The Lupane district experiences average annual rainfall ranging from 450 to 650 mm, often accompanied by dry spells during the rainy season (Mubaya et al., 2012). Agriculture serves as the primary economic activity in the area, but, as noted by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO, 2015), insufficient rainfall and high temperatures hinder successful crop farming. According to the 2022 census, Lupane has a population of approximately 107,248 residents (Figure 1).
Below is ward 26 in Lupane district, where Mhlahlandlela village is located on the Zimbabwean map.
The study employed a case study research design, which allows for a comprehensive analysis of an individual or group to uncover universal truths or trends applicable to a broader population (Rebolj, 2013). The researcher specifically examined community nutrition gardening as a climate change adaptation strategy in Mhlahlandlela village, Lupane District. This focused approach ensured the collection of in-depth data that might not be attainable through other research designs, providing the researcher with a clear understanding of how rural communities utilise gardening to respond to the impacts of climate change. Additionally, a qualitative research approach was chosen for data analysis to gain deeper insights into the phenomenon, exploring the experiences, meanings and perspectives of participants. Qualitative research is characterised by an explanatory model that highlights subjective experiences and the significance they hold for individuals, emphasising their viewpoints on various investigative contexts, processes and relationships (Grace, 2022; Haradhan, 2018). Since this research depends on human experiences, the qualitative approach will be more compelling than the data gathered through the quantitative research approach.
The study population comprised members of the community nutrition garden from 29 households. An ethical clearance was secured from the Kusile Rural Council and Lupane State University to do the study. Participation in the study was voluntary and consent was secured from all those involved. Data was collected from 29 in-depth interviews, 1 Focus group discussion and 5 Key Informants. Specifically, data from these garden members was collected using the census method, which offers comprehensive and detailed insights into various aspects of the issue, ensuring greater accuracy and reliability as it accounts for every member of the population (Rastogi, 2020). In addition, purposive sampling included a select group of community members not involved in the garden, along with key informants. This approach allowed for triangulation of information, offering diverse and relevant perspectives, which enriched the data and provided the researcher with a more profound understanding of the subject being studied. Fern (2001) states that purposive sampling targets a very specific population, which can help gain a detailed understanding of their characteristics. Qualitative data analysis and content analysis strategies were used to analyse the appropriate data needed. This involved analysing the content of the data, such as the words and phrases used, to conclude the meaning and significance of the data.
Study findings and discussion
Characteristics of study households
A total of 29 individuals were interviewed, including 17 members of the community nutrition garden, 3 individuals from outside the garden and 5 key informants. The findings indicate that sandy soils dominate Mhlahlandlela village. The impact of sandy soil on local households is evident in agriculture, as its poor water retention, soil structure and nutrient retention adversely affect farming practices. As a result, households have embraced soil conservation methods, such as adding organic matter to improve soil structure, enhance nutrient content and boost water retention. One participant highlighted:
Our significant challenge is the sandy nature of our village, so when farming, it’s essential to ensure we have enough manure and seek out clay soil from other places to incorporate into the farm or garden for a more abundant harvest. (Participant 4)
Research findings reveal that the primary livelihood strategies for households in this community include rain-fed agriculture, selling firewood, seeking employment, vending, participating in the Thokozani community nutrition garden, and taking on piece jobs. Discussions with participants highlighted that high unemployment and reliance on rain-fed agriculture are significant contributors to poverty and social inequality in the community. Despite its challenges, smallholder agriculture has been identified as central to the lives and livelihoods of the participants.
Animal husbandry was highlighted as essential for supporting the livelihoods of locals in the study area. Discussions indicated that livestock serve as a significant source of income and plays a vital role in enhancing household food security and dietary diversity. The cultivated crops include a range of varieties such as maize, groundnuts, sugarcane, roundnuts, cowpeas, pumpkins, watermelon and melons. The livestock raised in the area consists of cows, goats, chickens, pigs, donkeys and turkeys. This diverse approach not only helps ensure a sufficient food supply for households but also creates opportunities for financial stability, particularly during tough economic times. One of the participants noted that:
Keeping livestock is essential as they assist during challenging times, enabling the sale of some to cover expenses such as school fees for our children, and crops offer substantial support. (Participant 1)
Participants in the study reported that climate change and erratic rainfall patterns have negatively impacted agriculture, resulting in food shortages in the area. Food insecurity and the lack of access to indigenous fruits have adversely affected the health of households in Mhlahlandlela. This unavailability of traditional crops, such as peanuts, groundnuts and sorghum, has led to nutritional deficiencies and compromised the well-being of the community.
The study also found that most households are headed by men, many of whom have migrated to urban areas like Bulawayo or to neighbouring countries such as Botswana and South Africa in search of work, leaving their wives and children behind. In addition, some households are led by single women and widows who serve as the primary earners, responsible for supporting their families. These women often find themselves in this position due to divorce or the loss of their spouses for various reasons, including HIV and AIDS.
Localisation and the perceived impacts of climate change on livelihoods
In the field of international development, ‘localisation’ has become increasingly significant in recent years. The concept is both straightforward and impactful, it involves empowering local actors, communities and organisations to take a leading role in development initiatives. Participants were invited to share their views on how climate change affects household livelihoods. The study found that in Mhlahlandlela, climate change has significantly impacted agricultural production. Crop yields have dropped sharply due to rising temperatures and decreased rainfall. Livestock is also struggling, facing poor rangelands and limited water access, which forces them to travel long distances in search of water, resulting in emaciation and higher mortality rates. This aligns with the observations of Ndebele and Mubaya (2015), who argue that rainfall patterns have become more erratic, with an increase in dry spells that complicate crop growth. One of the participants stated that:
This year we had cultivated small grains, cowpeas, sorghum, but due to the effects of climate change, the crops dried up to such an extent that we were unable to harvest them even for consumption at home. (Participant 18)
Further discussions with participants revealed that climate change has resulted in food insecurity and malnutrition. Agricultural production has suffered, leading to crop failures and harm to livestock, which leaves granaries empty and worsens the food security crisis. These findings resonate with the FAO (2015), which noted that climate change impacts food security across all dimensions: access, availability, utilisation and stability. Localisation signifies an encouraging move toward inclusivity and empowerment. It recognises that local communities and organisations frequently have a better grasp of their own needs, challenges and aspirations. Participants expressed concerns that nutrition is affected as key crops like groundnuts and sorghum are diminished, resulting in a lower intake of essential nutrients. Moreover, the decline in wild fruits due to increased temperatures and reduced rainfall further limits access to crucial nutrients. Therefore, localisation goes beyond merely involving local organisations; it is about forming true partnerships with them that entail collaboratively developing solutions and sharing responsibilities.
Climate change is also undermining the sustainability of rain-fed agriculture, creating widespread repercussions such as decreased household food security and diminished purchasing power. By engaging locals in the decision-making process, a sense of ownership, accountability and a stronger dedication to sustainable development is cultivated. Ultimately, it is about allowing those who experience reality to steer the direction, resulting in more effective and meaningful initiatives, and potentially fostering systemic change. For many farmers, agriculture is their primary source of income. Investing in the capabilities of local organisations and communities is essential. It is not sufficient to simply hand over control to locals, they need to be empowered to lead effectively. This confirmed previous studies by Gukurume (2014), that climate change has intensified poverty in Zimbabwe’s rural communities, where 70% of the country’s population is impoverished. One participant noted that:
I have been earning income through selling crop harvests from farming and selling indigenous fruits. Now I cannot do that because there are no harvests made and Indigenous fruits are scarce, also the money from selling garden products is not enough. (Participant 13)
Participants in the study reported that climate change has resulted in the loss of essential household assets, including cattle, ploughs and other vital farming tools, which are often sold as a last resort to cope with the severe effects of climate change. They also identified the maintenance of household infrastructure as a challenge amidst climate variability, noting that the scarcity of grass for roofing and renovations has negatively impacted their grass huts. Many mentioned that their animal-drawn carts are increasingly susceptible to tyre punctures due to rising temperatures. Furthermore, the study revealed that climate change is causing more insects to emerge, leading to increased damage from rats to clothing and property, as well as greater discomfort from ants within the home.
Discussions also underscored the adverse effects of climate change on the health and well-being of the community. Participants noted that higher temperatures have resulted in headaches, heart issues, high blood pressure and increased stress, particularly affecting vulnerable groups like the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions. In addition, it was noted that diminished consumption of essential nutrients has further negatively impacted the community’s overall health and well-being. A focused group discussion revealed that climate change has significantly affected water accessibility for both humans and animals. Participants noted that rivers have dried up and the dams contain very little water, leading livestock to depend on community boreholes for drinking water. This observation aligns with Brazier (2018), who indicated that climate change will decrease water availability for agriculture. The resulting impact on water resources influences agricultural practices, livestock health and soil quality (Chimire and Chitongo, 2018; Dahal and Khanal, 2010). One participant remarked:
Livestock in this area used to drink water from small ponds, rivers and river streams. However, these natural water sources have dried up, leading us to rely on the borehole to provide water for our livestock. (Participant 6)
Power dynamics in community nutrition garden and adaptation to climate change
A concerning aspect of localisation is the potential for tokenism, where local voices are included merely for appearances, without a genuine appreciation for their input. This risk perpetuates the unequal power dynamics that have long been present in the development sector. Genuine localisation should involve real influence, decision-making authority and equitable partnerships. Anything short of this undermines the communities we strive to assist. For years, the development community and donor nations have promoted their views of progress and the processes that should accompany it. However, individual countries often possess culturally specific interpretations of development that reflect their unique contexts and knowledge systems. To conduct a genuine analysis of power structures, both historical and contemporary, it is essential to consider all perspectives. This understanding will guide our efforts to address inequality and facilitate the transfer of power to local partners. Deliberations indicated that the Thokozani community nutrition garden in Mhlahlandlela village was founded in 1992 by eleven individuals to generate income and grow food for household and community consumption. The findings suggest that individuals ranging from 21 to 79 years old are engaged in this community nutrition garden. One participant stated that:
We were eleven when we initiated this garden in 1992, and we continue to be involved to this day. We aimed to earn money for purchasing food, covering our children’s school fees and things needed at school, produce relish and assisting residents in obtaining relish from a place which is nearer to their homes. (Participant 1)
Many participants cited their main motivations for joining community gardening, such as finding an alternative income source to fund their children’s education and buy essential school supplies. Unlike field crops that are harvested annually, horticultural crops like tomatoes and chomolia can be harvested for up to 6 months, providing a more extended income stream and enhancing livelihoods. This aligns with findings from Zivenge et al. (2013), which demonstrate the significant income-generating potential of community garden activities, ultimately improving people’s lives. Similarly, New Farmer (2004) notes that while waiting for the rainy season, individuals can profit from community gardens by accessing necessary inputs for the main farming season. Several participants also mentioned that their involvement in community nutrition gardening stemmed from their primary fields becoming unproductive after over 20 years of cultivation. The situation is worsened by the prevalence of sandy soils, which naturally lack fertility, and the adverse effects of climate change, resulting in a notable decrease in production. Consequently, community gardening has emerged as a more sustainable and effective method for intensively cultivating these sandy soils. This approach improves soil structure and fertility through the addition of manure and black clay, thereby boosting productivity per area. Although the concept of localisation is commendable, its implementation can be quite challenging. Many local organisations often face limitations in resources, infrastructure or capacity, which can hinder their ability to lead effectively. Muzawazi et al. (2017) support this by stating that drought, characterised by low rainfall and extreme heat, is the primary climate challenge facing rural farmers today. They conclude that community gardens are vital for ensuring food security, as rural areas often rely on wetlands for irrigation to support their crops and vegetables. The management of moisture through mulching and other protective practices is more feasible in community gardens, contributing to the safeguarding of crops. Some participants indicated that their motivation to participate in community gardening was to regain self-sufficiency and improve their diet.
Localisation should enhance, rather than diminish, transparency and accountability. There must be well-defined mechanisms for oversight, evaluation and feedback. It is important to recognise that this discussion occurs against a backdrop of growing fragility and unstable environments. The emergence of authoritarian regimes and the diminishing space for civil society present fresh challenges for both humanitarian and development efforts. The diverse range of vegetables cultivated in this garden offers essential vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, calcium and potassium, contributing to a well-rounded and balanced diet. Certain community members not directly involved in the garden have reported significant benefits from it, as they now have access to fresh vegetables without having to travel long distances to the business centre for food. The data also revealed that the community nutrition garden has positively impacted household income, particularly for those reliant on agriculture. By cultivating a variety of crops, households can generate surplus produce for sale at local markets, including community events, Mtshibini Primary School, Mabikwa High School and the Lupane business centre. Participants noted that the income generated from the garden helps supplement household budgets and covers expenses such as education and healthcare, among others. According to the responses, some women are now able to assist their husbands in fulfilling family responsibilities. One participant has opined that:
I have managed not to ask for petty cash from my husband to buy things like salt, sugar, mealie-meal and I am now able to buy necessary school supplies for my children. (Participant 7)
Some research participants highlighted that the community nutrition garden has enhanced household assets. They have improved their kitchens and acquired items like pots and plates, with one participant even managing to build an additional room. According to their responses, community nutrition gardening in Mhlahlandlela has played a role in fostering social capital and resilience among those affected by climate change. The garden members have formed a club called ‘Qogelela’, where they save and contribute money together. At the end of the year, they receive back the total amount they invested, which they then use to purchase desired items.
Respondents indicated that the garden has significantly improved children’s welfare in multiple ways. Children no longer face the stress of possibly missing school, as the garden has generated income for some parents, enabling them to pay for school fees and necessary supplies. Participants observed that children are now in better physical condition due to their active involvement in maintaining the garden and the knowledge they gain from agricultural extension officers who provide training. The nutritious produce from the garden has also helped reduce malnutrition linked to climate change.
In addition, the community nutrition garden benefits adults and the elderly by promoting individual stress relief and enhancing resilience to climate change. It has led to improved physical and dietary health while also providing income for their households. Other community members lend a hand to elderly individuals who may struggle to water the garden, fostering a sense of support and collaboration. The responses indicated that the Thokozani community nutrition garden has significantly improved the well-being of households with chronic illnesses by providing access to fresh, nutritious produce. The therapeutic benefits of gardening have instilled a sense of purpose and accomplishment, positively influencing participants’ mental and emotional health. In addition, participants noted that those with chronic illnesses can earn income from the garden to help purchase medication. These findings support Lovell et al. (2014), who suggested that community gardening can help address chronic and non-communicable diseases by offering opportunities for physical activity, better nutrition and stress reduction. The research also revealed that this community nutrition garden has created employment opportunities for individuals in the area. By engaging in the garden, community members are essentially creating their jobs and generating income. Recently, they have enlisted the help of local youths to dig trenches, compensating them for their services. In addition, some study participants mentioned that fellow community members ask them to water the garden on their behalf, offering crops as payment in return. This aligns with the findings of Zivenge et al. (2013), who noted that community garden production serves as a source of employment for the unemployed in rural Zimbabwe.
Partnership and capacity development of community nutrition gardening
International organisations need to genuinely listen to and learn from local perspectives. In a truly collaborative partnership, knowledge flows in both directions. The partnership principles shape this intention and are central to every partnership established since their inception. Minimum institutional criteria and a toolkit offer guidance to country programmes on how to cultivate high-quality collaborations with national stakeholders. In addition, delegating responsibility to local actors does not relieve international organisations of their obligation to offer oversight, technical expertise and financial backing. Finding the right balance between empowering local entities and providing necessary external support is a nuanced challenge, especially as the development sector increasingly emphasises capacity building. One of the participants opined that:
We receive seeds and fertilisers from Agricultural Extension officers, but at times they delay in providing us, leading to us contributing money to purchase seeds. (Participant 4)
Findings revealed that members of the community nutrition garden have successfully pooled their finances to purchase a fence and pesticides needed. In certain instances, Mhlahlandlela collaborates with private sector partners who prioritise social and environmental responsibility to enhance their global connections and amplify their impact. These partnerships blend co-investment with core funding to experiment with innovative funding mechanisms and resource mobilisation models, all grounded in a long-term strategy. Participants in the study noted that there are times when they lack sufficient income to invest in additional inputs for the garden. They expressed a strong desire to expand their gardening efforts, but financial constraints remain a significant obstacle. One key informant highlighted that the community nutrition garden is facing deforestation, as local trees are being cut down for pole-making, likely driven by the community’s limited income. This deforestation threatens the sustainability of the garden, disrupts local ecosystems and contributes to soil erosion.
Further discussions revealed that participants benefit from training in essential skills and modern agricultural techniques, which empower them to effectively plant seeds, maintain their gardens and achieve abundant harvests. These educational initiatives equip participants with valuable knowledge in various aspects of gardening, such as proper planting methods, efficient garden care and maximising yield quality. Findings also indicated that, due to the sandy soils in the area, garden members recently dug trenches and added manure to improve soil fertility for a more fruitful harvest.
The garden members source water from a nearby community borehole, situated about 100 m from the garden. Although the borehole has a reliable supply of water and has never run dry, accessing it can be difficult due to its shared use among the community, livestock and garden members, leading to overcrowding. Conversations with key informants revealed that the main challenge facing this community nutrition garden is water accessibility, as the borehole serves the entire community. One informant added that efforts are currently underway to develop a strategy to tackle this urgent water issue. One of the participants expressed:
We encounter challenges in irrigating the garden due to the high usage of the borehole by the community. This necessitates waking up early in the morning around 4 am to 9 am or watering the garden in the late evening from 7 pm to 9 pm for thorough watering. Those who reside at a distance are unable to water the garden thoroughly due to the queues at the borehole. (Participant 18)
Research findings revealed that participants of the community nutrition garden in Mhlahlandlela supply their products to local markets, sell to community members, serve customers from neighbouring communities as well as supply nearby schools such as Mtshibini, Mabikwa and the Lupane business centre. In different contexts, more authoritarian governments restrict citizen engagement and seek to exert control over all development and humanitarian organisations. Under these conditions, international NGOs often become the public representatives of interventions, effectively shielding their national NGO partners. Such fragile environments may also feature a limited civil society landscape and less experienced partners. Results from a focused group indicated that garden participants currently supply the local market, but they encounter difficulties in supplying broader markets despite their desire to expand their market reach.
Partnerships are shaped not only by the community’s policies, the vision of its partners, and shared values but also by donor regulations and legal requirements in partner countries, which impact organisational culture, behaviour and relationships among stakeholders. Regarding administrative prerequisites, it is crucial to evaluate whether indirect costs or overheads for all partners are included in project budgets, as these templates are typically set by the relevant donors. Additionally, it is essential to honour the context and its unique priorities, allowing sufficient flexibility to adapt to changing conditions and evolving needs. One of the participants opined that:
Our constitution states how members must conduct themselves, if there is a conflict or inappropriate talk, the discipline committee sit down with those people and corrects them. (Participant 10)
Perceptions surrounding community nutrition gardening and gender relations
Community nutrition gardening has increasingly been recognised as a means to empower women. For example, initiatives in countries such as Uganda have shown that women who engage in gardening not only improve household nutrition but also gain a stronger voice in community decisions, challenging traditional gender roles. The study findings suggest that the majority of active participants in the Thokozani community nutrition garden are women, with 28 women and only 1 man involved. The study also revealed that the main reasons for the low male attendance are employment commitments, migration to urban areas and neighbouring countries for work, not having interest and a certain number of single and widowed women. In many communities, gardening was traditionally viewed as a woman’s task. However, there’s been a shift where men are also becoming involved in these activities, recognising the importance of shared responsibilities. Programmes in countries like Ethiopia promote joint gardening efforts, fostering collaboration and challenging stereotypes.
Numerous international initiatives, discussions and processes are currently focused on promoting locally led development, localisation and decolonisation. This presents the international NGO community, including donors and national partners, with an opportunity to enhance the conversation around how development is understood within their specific contexts and to collaboratively address issues like poverty, inequality and human rights violations. Likewise, project methodologies are evolving to emphasise co-created and co-managed initiatives. One of the participants asserted that:
I have observed that there is a growing understanding that opportunities should be equal between women and men. There is now significantly less oppression of women and many women who participate in this garden also assist their husbands in supporting their families. (Participant 10)
Discussions suggested that community nutrition gardens generally do not significantly increase women’s workloads, as they have dedicated specific times for garden-related activities. However, some women indicated that it does add to their burdens, particularly when they have to carry water from the borehole on their heads to irrigate the garden. Moreover, a few women shared that they often rise early in the morning and work late into the evening to tend to their gardening responsibilities. The growing awareness of nutrition has changed perceptions of gardening from merely a source of food to a critical component of health. For instance, community gardens in urban areas of the United States are not only providing fresh produce but also serving as educational hubs about nutrition, thereby altering how both men and women view their roles in food production. The results are similar to those by Verma and Milcher (2022) who said that participating in project activities in homestead nutrition gardens and community nutrition gardens increased the workload of women.
Institutional support for community nutrition gardening
The study also intended to explore the institutional support for the community nutrition garden in the study area. Community nutrition gardening is also seen as a pathway to economic empowerment. In regions like South Asia, women-led gardening projects have begun to generate income, shifting perceptions from viewing women primarily as caregivers to recognising them as active economic contributors. Others noted that they were assisted by COSIVI in 1996, which gave them drums. These gardening initiatives often foster community ties and collective action, changing how gender relations are perceived. For example, in community gardens across Canada, mixed-gender teams working together have strengthened relationships and promoted a sense of belonging, impacting societal views on gender roles. It was asserted by one participant that:
Agricultural Extension officers support us by imparting farming skills, particularly in the context of implementing trench beds. We have transitioned from traditional farming methods due to the introduction of new technology and skills, which involve creating trench beds to nourish the soil and utilising compost instead of solely applying manure to the topsoil. (Participant 8)
Conversations with participants revealed that support from AGRITEX has played a crucial role in enhancing access to inputs for the community nutrition garden. While participants have received seeds and fertilisers, they noted that these supplies are sometimes inadequate to meet their gardening needs, leading them to contribute their own money to purchase additional seeds. One of the key informants opined that:
We offer technical advice and sometimes if there are presidential seeds available, we provide combinations that include onions, carrots, rape, butternut and tomatoes almost every year. (Participant 19)
Many community gardening projects now incorporate educational elements that teach both genders about sustainable practices and nutrition. This has led to a more informed community that values equitable contributions from all members, regardless of gender. However, one participant mentioned that at one time in the past, representatives from the microfinance scheme intended to offer loans but they were unable to secure the loans due to a lack of collateral. Other participants indicated that due to lack of support, the garden encounters numerous financial obstacles. Community nutrition gardening is transforming not just dietary habits but also gender relations, promoting empowerment, shared responsibilities and economic opportunities while fostering social cohesion (Walter, 2003).
Conclusions and recommendations
This study highlights how rural communities have leveraged community nutrition gardening to mitigate the harsh impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. The Thokozani community nutrition garden in Mhlahlandlela, established in 1992 by the local community, has played a vital role in tackling various challenges and enhancing community well-being. By cultivating a variety of crops, the garden has bolstered food and nutrition security while also improving household income and assets. In addition, it has fostered social capital and resilience, supporting children’s education and the overall welfare of adults, the elderly and those with chronic illnesses. The garden has also created employment opportunities, generating a multifaceted positive impact on the community’s economic and social health. Though there are many barriers to local access to adaptation finance and information, the community and individuals experiencing acute climate impacts are already innovating and adapting, utilising available tools and resources. Adaptation activities underway include the adoption of drought-tolerant agricultural practices, shifts in work hours to accommodate extreme heat, utilisation of flood and storm-resilient building measures, and development of early warning systems for disaster events. Because the economies, livelihoods and health of local communities all depend on surrounding ecosystems, water resources and weather and precipitation patterns, local actors intimately understand the systems that climate change disrupts. They know the intricacies of their geography and infrastructure, and where existing vulnerabilities and power dynamics could play a role in exacerbating or alleviating climate impacts. However, despite receiving essential inputs and training in modern farming techniques, participants still face significant challenges related to financial constraints and shared water resources. The garden struggles to expand its market reach. However, the leaders’ management of conflict resolution, budgeting and participant organisation highlights the initiative’s potential for ongoing success and sustainability. The study indicates that community nutrition gardening is largely comprised of women, with limited male involvement due to work commitments, migration and other factors. This gardening initiative has a transformative effect on women’s status, empowering them to make household decisions and regain self-sufficiency.
Nonetheless, the increased workload, especially for physically demanding tasks, has prompted some women to seek help from youth or hire others for assistance. This situation emphasises the need for ongoing support and solutions to alleviate the burden on women and ensure their sustained participation in the garden. Challenges arise from limited financial support from the government and other stakeholders, resulting in insufficient supplies and difficulties in securing loans, which threaten the garden’s financial viability. Addressing these financial challenges and enhancing support from relevant stakeholders is essential for the garden’s continued success. Based on the research findings, there is a pressing need for rural development policies to integrate community nutrition gardening into climate change mitigation strategies. Government agencies overseeing rural development initiatives should prioritise improving water accessibility and promoting efficient water use through methods like drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting. By doing so, community nutrition gardening will not only enhance food production but also promote the sustainable management of water resources. The public and commercial sectors need to collaborate in developing diverse funding sources for community nutrition gardens. Given the substantial financial requirements for establishing and maintaining these gardens, exploring financing options is vital for boosting their output. Community members should receive support in securing funding to expand their market access and acquire the necessary supplies for cultivating high-quality crops and generating revenue.
Members of the community nutrition garden should also forge strategic partnerships with local markets, grocery stores and restaurants. They can broaden their market reach by creating direct sales channels to consumers through farmers’ markets and community-supported agriculture initiatives. In addition, by leveraging digital platforms for online sales and marketing, community gardeners can connect with a wider customer base beyond their immediate area. Providing value-added training can further enable participants to diversify their product offerings, attracting a broader clientele and expanding their market presence. It is essential to create awareness campaigns and educational workshops that challenge traditional gender norms and promote inclusivity to boost male participation in community nutrition gardening activities. Engaging men in community initiatives and workshops that highlight the health advantages of participating in community nutrition gardening can help dismantle masculine stereotypes and overcome social barriers.
Footnotes
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
