Climate Change,Human Insecurity and Conflict Dynamics in the Lake Chad Region

Abstract

Climate change impacts on human development have been an issue of global concern in the past few decades. Over the past few years, there is increasing interest on the impacts of climate change on conflict, peace and security in Africa. This paper explores the extent to which climate change impacts and attendant effects on environmental resources are drivers of some of the conflicts in the Lake Chad region, specifically in Chad, Cameroon, Niger and Nigeria. It applies the human security theory to establish the interface between climate impacts, human insecurity and local conflicts. We find that reduced access to natural resources such as fertile land, water and pasture is undermining livelihoods of vulnerable people and communities in the Lake Chad region, which triggered recurrent conflicts.

Keywords

Climate change environmental degradation livelihood conflict

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adger

Pulhin

Barnett

, et al. (2014) Human security. In: Field

Barros

Dokken

, et al. (eds) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge; and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.755–791. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap12_FINAL.pdf (accessed 17 April 2021)

Ahmadu

(2019) Insight into the dynamics and menace of cattle rustling: a case study of Lake Chad Basin Area in Northern Nigeria. World Journal of Social Science Research 6(1): 1–16.

Ahmed

(2019) The farmer/herder conflict: what way forward? Daily Trust, 8 September. Available at: https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/the-herder-farmer-conflict-what-way-forward.html. (accessed 14 April 2021).

Atori

(2017) Farmer/herder clashes: Nigeria lost $13.7 billion, 2,500 dead, 62,000- Abdulsalami. New Telegraph, 30 October. Available at: https://www.newtelegraphng.com///farmerherdsmen-clash-nigeria-lost–billion–dead–abdulsalami/201710137250062000 (accessed 18 April 2021).

Ayuba

Ahmadu

(2018) The role of group solidarity in the conflict between farmers and Fulani pastoralists: a case study of Northern Nigeria. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 12(3): 33–41.

Barnett

Adger

(2007) Climate change, human security and violent conflict. Political Geography 26(6): 639–655.

Benjaminsen

(2019) Why do pastoralists in Mali join jihadist groups? A political ecological explanation. The Journal of Peasant Studies 46(1): 1–20.

Bennett

(Ed.) (1991) Greenwar: Environment and Conflict. London: Panos Institute.

Blench

(2001) ‘You Can’t Go Home Again’: Pastoralism in the New Millennium. London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Available at: https://odi.org/en/publications/you-cant-go-home-again-pastoralism-in-the-new-millennium (accessed 16 April 2021)

10.

Blench

(2010) Conflict between pastoralists and cultivators in Nigeria. A review paper prepared for DFID, Nigeria. Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation. Available at: http://www.rogerblench.info/Development/Nigeria/Pastoralism/Fadama%20II%20paper.pdf (accessed 17 April 2021)

11.

Brottem

(2016) Environmental change and farmer-herder conflict in agro-pastoral West Africa. Human Ecology 44(5): 547–563.

12.

Chiluwa

(2020) ‘Deadlier than Boko Haram’: Representations of the Nigerian herder–farmer conflict in the local and foreign press. Media, War & Conflict. Epub ahead print of 7 February 2020. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339125565 (accessed 16 April 2020)

13.

Collier

Conway

Venables

(2008) Climate change and Africa. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 24(2): 337–353.

14.

Ehiane

Uwizeyimana

(2019) Challenges in combating the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in Nigeria: a human security perspective. Journal of African Foreign Affairs 5(1): 65–85.

15.

Elmi

Barise

(2006) The Somali conflict: root causes, obstacles, and peace-building strategies. African Security Review 15(1): 32–54.

16.

Evans

Mohieldeen

(2002). Environmental change and live lihood strategies: The case of Lake Chad. Vol 87, No. 1. (Online): https://www.jstor.org/stable/40573633 (accessed 3 August 200)

17.

Fiki

Lee

(2005) Conflict management, local capacity governance, and inclusive human security in North-East Nigeria: a case study. Regional Development Dialogue 26(1): 77–80.

18.

Floyd

(2007) Human security and the Copenhagen school’s scrutinisation approach. Human Security Journal 5: 38–49.

19.

Freeman

(2017) Environmental change, migration and conflict in Africa: a critical examination of the interconnections. The Journal of Environment & Development 26(4): 351–374.

20.

Frimpong

(2020) Climate change and fragility in the Lake Chad basin (Online). Available at: https://africaupclose.wilsoncenter.org/climate-change-and-fragility-in-the-lake-chad-basin/

21.

Goodhand

(2003) Enduring disorder and persistent poverty: a review of linkages between war and chronic poverty. World Development 31(3): 629–646.

22.

Gough

(2002) Human security: the individual in the security question–the case of Bosnia. Contemporary Security Policy 23: 145–191.

23.

Gray

Kevane

(2008). For whom is the rural economy resilient? Initial effects of drought in Western Sudan. Development and Change 24: 159–176.

24.

Hampshire

(2004) Fulani. Available at: file:///C:/Users/DRSTAN~1/AppData/Local/Temp/EmberVol.2-14Fulanihealth.pdf (accessed 16 April 2021)

25.

Horn Relief (2009) Rapid assessment report on the current drought emergency in the Sanaag region. Horn Relief (Online). https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/52EBB809C2B320C2C1257602003097AC-Full_Report.pdf (accessed 12 February 2021)

26.

International Crisis Group (IGP) (2014) The security challenges of pastoralism in Central Africa. Africa Report No. 215. Available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/security-challenges-pastoralism-central-africa (accessed 18 April 2021)

27.

International Crisis Group (IGP) (2018) Stopping Nigeria’s spiralling farmer-herders violent. Available at: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/west-africa/nigeria/262-stopping-nigerias-spiralling-farmer-herder-violence (accessed 15 April 2021)

28.

Jabiru

(2017) The Mbororo problem in North West Cameroon: a historical investigation. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences 33(1): 37–48.

29.

Jeremiah

Falaju

(2018) Why Lake Chad requires urgent attention. The Guardian Newspaper, 26 February 2018.

30.

Kwaghga

(2018) Herdsmen/farmers crisis: a threat to democratic governance in Nigeria. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 8(11): 1–9.

31.

Maystadt

Ecker

Mabiso

(2013). Extreme Weather and Civil War in Somalia: Does Drought Fuel Conflict through Livestock Price Shocks? Discussion paper. No. 326/2013. (Online) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235443647_Extreme_Weather_and_Civil_War_in_Somalia_Does_Drought_Fuel_Conflict_Through_Livestock_Price_Shocks (accessed 8 November 2020)

32.

Mbih

R. A

(2020). The politics of farmer–herder conflicts and alternative conflict management in Northwest Cameroon. African Geographical Review. (online). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338934040 (accessed 12 November 2020)

33.

McCarthy

(2020) Preventing transhumance-related intercommunity conflict in Chad: towards a climate-sensitive conflict analysis. Issue no 20. Available at: https://www.google.com/search?q=Preventing+transhumance-related+intercommunity+conflict+in+Chad%3A+Towards+a+climate-sensitive+conflict+analysis (accessed 17 April 2021)

34.

Mochizuki

(2004) Conflict and people’s insecurity: an insight from the experiences of Nigeria. In: Shinoda

Jeong

(eds). Conflict and Human Security: A Search for New Approach of Peace-Building. Hiroshima: Institute for Peace Science Hiroshima University. pp. 45–67.

35.

Mwamfupe

(2015) Persistence of farmer-herder conflicts in Tanzania. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publication 5(2): 1–8.

36.

Ndifor

(2007) Women in the political and economic conflicts in Mezam division north west Province Cameroon: 1958–2006. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. University of Yaoundé 1, Cameroon.

37.

Ngwoh

(2014) The dynamics of farmer-herder conflicts across the Bamenda grass fields, 1947–2006. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Buea, Cameroon.

38.

Nnoko-Mewanu

(2018) Farmer-herder conflicts on the rise in Africa. Inter Press Service (IPS) News Agency, 6 August. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/06/farmer-herder-conflicts-rise-africa

39.

Ogbuleke

(2019) The Immediate and Remote Causes of Farmer Pastoralist Conflict in Southwest Nigeria. Asian Journal of Basic Science & Research (AJBSR) 1(1): 15–23.

40.

Ogudairo

Ijimakinwa

(2021) Insights from Fulani pastoralists and host communities in southwestern Nigeria. Available at: https://theconversation.com/insights-from-fulani-pastoralists-and-host-communities-in-southwestern-nigeria-154196 (accessed 15 April 2021)

41.

Ohlsson

(2000) Livelihood Conflicts: Linking Poverty and Environment as Causes of Conflict. Stockholm: Environmental Policy Unit, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.

42.

Okoro

(2018) Herdsmen/farmers conflict and its effects on socio-economic development in Nigeria. Journal of Peace, Security and Development 4(1): 143–158.

43.

Okpara

Stringer

Dougill

(2016) Lake drying and livelihood dynamics in Lake Chad: unravelling the mechanisms, contexts, and responses. The Royal Swedish Academy of Science 45: 781–795

44.

Oladotun

Emmanuel

(2019) Herders-farmers’ communal conflict in Nigeria: an indigenized language as an alternative resolution mechanism. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research 7: 615–623.

45.

Oli

Ibekwe

Nwankwo

(2018) Prevalence of herdsmen and farmers conflict in Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and Humanities 3(1): 29–39.

46.

Onuoha

(2011) Small arms and light weapons proliferation and human security in Nigeria. Conflict Trends 1: 50–56.

47.

Owen

(2004) Human security-conflict, critique and consensus: colloquium remarks and a proposal for a threshold-based definition. Security Dialogue 35(3): 373–387.

48.

Oyama

(2014) Farmer-herder conflict, land rehabilitation, and conflict prevention in the Sahel region of west Africa. African Study Monographs (Suppl 50): 103–122. Available at: https://geo.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/niger-station/wp-content/themes/niger/images/pdf/pdf2.pdf (accessed 17 April 2021)

49.

Porter

(1995) Adapting to environment and market: trade and marketing in northern Nigeria’ in Binns

(ed) People and Environment in Africa. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 197–204.

50.

Richards

(2005). Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth, and Resources in Sierra Leone. Oxford: James Currey, Ltd.

51.

Serdeczny

Adams

Baarsch

, et al. (2017) Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions. Regional Environmental Change 17: 1585–1600.

52.

Shettima

Tar

(2008) Farmer-pastoralist conflict in West Africa: Exploring the causes and consequences. Information, Society and Justice 1(2): 163–184. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36771572.pdf (accessed 15 February 2021)

53.

Skah

Lyammouri

(2020) The climate change-security nexus: A case study of the Lake Chad. Policy Centre for the New South. (Online). https://media.africaportal.org/documents/the_climate_change_security_nexus.pdf. Pp 1-36

54.

Standard Monitoring Assessment of Relief Transition (SMART) (2018) (Online). Available at: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/CARE%20SMART%20survey%20protocol%20May%202018.pdf (accessed 16 February 2021)

55.

Statistics Chad (2021) Chad: gross domestic product (GDP) in current prices. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/529323/gross-domestic-product-gdp-in-chad/ (accessed 10 October 2021)

56.

The Economist (2017) Cows, Cash and Conflict. 9 November 2017.

57.

Turner

(2003) Multiple holders of multiple stakes: The multi-layered politics of agro-pastoral resource management in semi-arid Africa. In: Allsopp

Palmer

Milton

, et al (eds) Rangelands in the New Millennium: Proceedings of the VIIth International Rangelands Congress. Centurion: Document Transformation Technologies, pp.1715–1725

58.

Turner

Ayantunde

Patterson

, et al. (2004) Farmer-herder relations and conflict management in agro-pastoral zone of Niger. Available at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/34419/TranshumancePpastoralism.pdf; sequence (accessed 17 April 2021)

59.

UNHCR (2016) Frequently asked question on climate change and disaster displacement. (Online), pp.1–3. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2016/11/581f52dc4/frequently-asked-questions-climate-change-disaster-isplacement.html (accessed 22 October 2020)

60.

UNHCR (2018) Global report. (Online), pp.1–131. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/5e4ff98f7.pdf.

61.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) (2005) The state of the environment in Somalia. (Online). Available at: https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/dmb_somalia.pdf (accessed 8 February 2021)

62.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OCHA (2020a) Herder-farmer clashes: the new normal. Available at: https://nextierspd.com/herder-farmer-clashes-the-new-normal/ (accessed 17 April 2021)

63.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2020b) Niger: Climate change and armed conflict threaten the livelihoods of nomadic herders. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/niger/niger-climate-change-and-armed-conflict-threaten-livelihoods-nomadic-herders (accessed 16 April 2021)

64.

Usigbe

(2019) Drying Lake Chad Basin gives rise to the crisis. (Online). Available at: https://www.africa-newsroom.com/press/drying-lake-chad-basin-gives-rise-to-crisis (accessed 4 February 2020)

65.

Vatican News (2020) Chad: dozens killed in farmer-herder clashes. Available at: https://www.vaticannews.va/en/world/news/2021-02/chad-violence-farmer-herder-clashes.html (accessed 27 April 2021)

66.

World Bank (2020) International development association. (Online), pp.1–168. Available at: http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/997491590804160101/pdf/Cameroon-Chad-Niger-Lake-Chad-Basin-Commission-Lake-Chad (accessed 15 February 2021).