Aims: To explore possible systematic differences between prison inmates serving their first sentence and inmates having experienced previous incarcerations. It is hoped that a better knowledge of these issues will make us better equipped to meet the rehabilitation needs of our prisoners and decrease their risk of reoffending and reincarceration.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study a randomly selected and nationally representative sample of 260 Norwegian prisoners, 100 serving their first sentence and 160 recidivists, was interviewed with special focus on childhood circumstances, education, work experience, and present social and economic situation. In addition their criminal records were collected from the National Crime Registry.
Results: In males multivariate analyses identified a number of variables independently and significantly associated with being a repeat offender. The odds for reincarceration increased significantly if the person fulfilled any one of the following criteria: having experienced the incarceration of a family member during childhood (OR = 3.6); having experienced childcare interventions during childhood (OR = 3.2); current drug abuse (OR = 2.6); current housing problems (OR = 2.3). In females only one strong correlation emerged: if the person had current drug problems the odds for being a recidivist increased substantially (OR = 10.9).
Conclusions: While criminal reoffending and reincarceration seemed to be primarily associated with drug abuse in females, the childhood problems of male repeat offenders, compared with males serving their first sentence, indicate that these individuals' current multiple social and economic disadvantages were complex in origin and of long standing. Interventions aimed at preventing reoffending must take into account the gender differences demonstrated. Aiming at primary prevention, the negative effects associated with parental incarceration are crucial: how can one prevent the perpetuation of these problems from one generation to the next?
Åkerström, M. (1985) Våld och hot bland intagna i kriminalvårdsanstalt . Norrköping: Kriminalvårdsstyrelsen .
2.
Baillargeon, J., Black S.A., Pulvino, J. & Dunn K. (2000) The disease profile of Texas prison inmates. Annals of Epidemiology, 10, 74-80.
3.
Bigelow, B.J. (2000) Delinquency. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 13, 563-568.
4.
Derogatis, L.R., Lipman, R.S., Rickels, K., Uhlenluth, E.H. & Covi, L. (1974) The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): a self-report symptom inventory. Behavioural Science, 19, 1-15.
5.
Farrington, D.P. (1995) The development of offending and antisocial behaviour from childhood: key findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 929-964.
6.
Farrington, D.P. (2002) Families and crime. In Crime: Public policies for crime control (eds. J.Q. Wilson & J. Petersilia), pp. 129-148. Oakland, CA: Institute for Contemporary Studies Press .
7.
Farrington, D.P., Barnes, G.C. & Lambert, S. (1996) The concentration of offending in families. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 1, 47-63.
8.
Farrington, D.P., Jolliffe, D., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M. & Kalb, L.M. (2001) The concentration of offenders in families, and family criminality in the prediction of boys' delinquency. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 579-596.
9.
Fazel, S. & Danesh, J. (2002) Serious mental disorder in 23000 prisoners: a systematic review of 62 surveys. Lancet, 359, 545-550.
10.
Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J. & Nagin, D. (2000) Offending trajectories in a New Zealand birth cohort . Criminology, 38, 525-551.
11.
Friestad, C. & Hansen, I.L.S. (2004) Levekår blant innsatte (Report No. 429). Oslo: Forskningsstiftelsen Fafo.
12.
Gendreau, P., Little, T. & Goggin, C. (1996) A meta analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: what works? Criminology, 34, 575-607.
13.
Kjelsberg, E. & Dahl, A.A. (1999) A long-term follow-up study of adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Part II. Predictors of delinquency. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99, 237-242.
14.
Kjelsberg, E. & Hartvig, P. (2005) Can morbidity be inferred from prescription drug use? Results from a nationwide prison population study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 20, 587-592.
15.
Kling, B. & Gustavsson J. (2004) Prisoners, prison, and the society. Norrköping: Norrköpings Tryckeri.
16.
Kyvsgaard, B. (1989) ...and prison takes the hindmost. On crime, punishment and living conditions. Copenhagen: Jurist- og økonomforbundets forlag.
17.
Kyvsgaard, B. (1998) Den kriminelle karriere. Köbenhavn : Jurist- og konomforbundets Forlag.
18.
Laub, J.H. & Sampson, R.J. (2006) Shared beginnings, divergent lives: delinquent boys to age 70. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
19.
Lindquist, C.H. & Lindquist, C.A. (1999) Health behind bars: utilization and evaluation of medical care among jail inmates. Journal of Community Health, 24, 285-303.
20.
Loeber, R., Farrington, D.P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A. & Lynam, D. (2001) Male mental health problems, psychopathy, and personality traits: key findings from the first 14 years of the Pittsburgh Youth Study . Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 273-297.
21.
Loza, W. (2003) Predicting violent and nonviolent recidivism of incarcerated male offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 8, 175-203.
22.
May, C. (1999) Explaining reconviction following a community sentence . London: Home Office.
23.
Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P.A. & Stanton, W. (1996) Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 399-424.
24.
Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M. & Silva, P.A. (2001) Sex differences in antisocial behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25.
Murray, J. (2005) The effects of imprisonment on families and children of prisoners. In The effects of imprisonment (eds. A. Liebling & S. Maruna ), pp. 442-492. Cullompton, Devon: Willan.
26.
Murray, J. (2007) The cycle of punishment: social exclusion of prisoners and their children. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 7, 55-81.
27.
Murray, J. & Farrington, D.P. (2005) Parental imprisonment: effects on boys' antisocial behaviour and delinquency through the life-course. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1269-1278.
28.
Murray, J., Janson, C.-G. & Farrington, D.P. (2007) Crime in adult offspring of prisoners. A cross-national comparison of two longitudinal samples. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 133-149.
29.
Nilsson, A. (2002) Fånge i marginalen. Uppväxtvillkor, levnadsförhållanden och återfall i brott bland fångar. Stockholm: Kriminologiska institutionen Stockholms universitet.
30.
Nilsson, A. (2003) Living conditions, social exclusion and recidivism among prison inmates. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 4, 57-83.
31.
Pakiz, B., Reinherz, H.Z. & Giaconia, R.M. (1997) Early risk factors for serious antisocial behavior at age 21: a longitudinal community study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 92-101.
32.
Peters, R.H., Strozier, A.L., Murrin, M.R. & Kearns, W.D. (1997) Treatment of substance-abusing jail inmates: examination of gender differences. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 14, 339-349.
33.
Raine, A. (2002) Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: a review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311-326.
34.
Robins, L.N., West, P.A. & Herjanic, B.L. (1975) Arrests and delinquency in two generations: a study of black urban families and their children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 125-140.
35.
Sandanger, I., Moum, T., Ingebrigtsen, G., Sørensen, T., Dalgaard, O.S. & Bruusgaard, D. (1999) The meaning and significance of caseness: the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview II. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 345-354.
36.
Skardhamar, T. (2003) Inmates' social background and living conditions . Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 4, 39-56.
37.
SPSS for Windows, Release 15.0.0 (2006). SPSS Inc.
38.
Stattin, H. & Magnusson, D. (1996) Antisocial development: a holistic approach. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 617-645.
39.
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Wei, E., Loeber, R. & Masten, A.S. (2004) Desistance from persistent serious delinquency in the transition to adulthood. Development & Psychopathology , 16, 897-918.
40.
Teplin, L.A., Abram, K.M. & McClelland, G.M. (1996) Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among incarcerated women. I. Pretrial jail detainees. [ Erratum appears in Archives of General Psychiatry, 53(8), 664]. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 505-512.
41.
World Prison Population List. Retrieved February 22, 2008, from: www.prisonstudies.org
42.
Winokur, A., Winokur, D.F. & Rickels, K. (1984) Symptoms of emotional stress in family planning service: stability over a four-week period. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 395-399.
