China’s diplomacy and changing the COVID-19 narrative

Abstract

The world has declared COVID-19 (a disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus or novel coronavirus) to be a pandemic. China has been chastised by various countries, especially the United States, for suppressing information and not taking necessary measures which could have helped in controlling the spread of and/or eradicating the disease in the earlier stages. Consequently, China has undertaken numerous measures to change the COVID-19 narrative and disassociate itself from COVID-19. It launched a campaign to question the origins of SARS-CoV-2, blamed the United States for spreading COVID-19, claimed victory in combating COVID-19 domestically, and provided aid (“mask diplomacy”) to countries. These actions betray China’s concern about its image. The country wants to portray itself as a Good Samaritan, a responsible and reliable partner, and an essential global power. Additionally, China has grave concerns about regime stability and survival. President Xi’s legitimacy is built on technocratic competence. The outbreak has the potential to seriously dent his personal legacy.

On 11 March 2020, COVID-19 (a disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus or novel coronavirus) was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). Although the exact source of SARS-CoV-2 has not been identified, reports suggest that it spread from a so-called wet market, or live animal market, in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. ¹ As of 22 April 2020, SARS-COV2 has infected more than 2.5 million people and killed more than 180,000. The United States has the highest death toll and has more infected people than China. Italy and Spain have also reported more deaths than China. ² COVID-19 has devastated the global economy, and, according to the International Monetary Fund, the global economy is undergoing the worst economic downturn since the global depression in the 1930s, with a majority of the countries forecast to experience economic recession.

This essay analyses why China wants to change the COVID-19 narrative. It explores both domestic and external factors to explicate the phenomenon. It also discusses the various measures undertaken by China to change the narrative. The essay proceeds as follows. The second section discusses why China has been blamed for the global spread of COVID-19. This is followed by a discussion of the measures adopted by China to change the COVID-19 narrative. The final section discusses the rationale for changing the narrative. The conclusion summarizes the argument.

Is China to blame?

Globally, it is a common belief that the Chinese government is to blame for the spread of COVID-19. China has been associated with the origin of the pandemic. The Chinese government has been criticized for poor regulation of animal markets. In 2007, infectious disease experts argued that “the presence of a large reservoir of SARS-CoV-2-like viruses in horseshoe bats, together with the culture of eating exotic mammals in southern China, is a time bomb. The possibility of the re-emergence of SARS and other novel viruses from animals or laboratories and therefore the need for preparedness should not be ignored.” ³ In March 2019, Chinese experts warned that it is, “highly likely that future SARS- or MERS-like coronavirus outbreaks will originate from bats, and there is an increased probability that this will occur in China.” ⁴ It seems these warnings were well ignored.

China has been chastised by various countries, especially the United States, for suppressing information and not taking necessary measures that could have helped in controlling the spread of and/or eradicating the disease in the earlier stages. First, local officials in Wuhan silenced whistle blowers. Eight doctors from Wuhan Central Hospital, including Li Wenliang (an ophthalmologist), were given “education” and “criticism” and warned by the Wuhan police against passing along information about the virus. Second, local Wuhan officials thwarted the first two teams sent by China’s National Health Commission from obtaining evidence that COVID-19 could spread through human infection. Third, the Wuhan municipal health commission (WHC) prevented expert groups sent by the national and Hubei provincial health commissions from having an open conversation with doctors in the infectious disease wards and emergency care. This prevented experts from gathering valuable insights on the virus, such as the number of health-care workers infected with the virus. Fourth, the WHC used its own restrictive criteria and communicated these to hospital officials. On 11 January 2020, the WHC announced that there were zero new cases. Such announcements were made on a daily basis, which led to both a false sense of security among the people and the medical staff, and a steep rise in infections in medical personnel. ⁵

In a report published by South China Morning Post on 13 March 2020, Yang Gonghuan, former Deputy Director of China’s Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC) says that after the SARS outbreak in 2002–2003, China spent 730 million renminbi to build an early reporting and warning system for the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC). However, according to Yang and leaked documents from the Wuhan central hospital, the early warning system was not activated in December 2019 when the outbreak occurred. Yang asserts that COVID-19 could have been prevented if the system had been operational. ⁶ China informed the WHO on 31 December 2019 but kept its citizens in the dark despite other countries’ reporting of infections. Although the first symptom of infection from SARS-CoV-2 was evident in Wuhan on 1 December 2019, it was only on 23 January 2020 that China acted decisively. This is despite the fact that, by 7 January 2020, China’s top leadership, including President Xi, had been fully informed about the virus outbreak.

By 23 January 2020, approximately five million people had already left Wuhan. China did not ban international flights and, although checks were conducted on outbound passengers for symptoms, these were inadequate because it takes between five days to two weeks for the symptoms to emerge in the infected person. A travel ban would have prevented the global spread of the disease. On the contrary, Beijing severely criticized countries that imposed a travel ban on people coming from China. According to a study conducted by the University of Southampton in the United Kingdom, if China had acted three weeks earlier, infectious cases could have been reduced by 95 percent.

On 19 March 2020, the United states President Donald Trump blamed China for the virus outbreak. Trump said, “The world is paying a very big price for what they did. . . . It could have been stopped right where it came from, China.” ⁷ He stated that Washington would have been able to act faster if Beijing had shared the information regarding SARS-CoV-2 with the United States. Trump has repeatedly referred to SARS-CoV-2 as the “Chinese virus.” ⁸ Some United States officials have also used the terms “Wuhan virus,” “China virus,” and “Kung-Flu,” which have racist connotations. SARS-CoV-2 has led to xenophobia and racist attacks not only against Chinese citizens but also against those who appear to be Chinese.

China’s attempts at changing the COVID narrative

President Xi in his speech on 3 February 2020 (featured on state television and published on 8 February 2020 in the Communist Party of China’s (CPC)’s bimonthly Qiushi and also other official mouthpieces) indicated his desire to win international support and understanding through diplomacy and propaganda. ⁹ Xi also issued a directive to China’s state media to publish reports that put China’s fight against COVID-19 in a positive light. China’s propaganda apparatus has been working tirelessly to change the COVID-19 narrative.

In an initial phase of this propaganda apparatus, the Chinese government and some parts of China’s social media have launched a collaborative campaign questioning the origins of SARS-CoV-2 after a Chinese government official, in the first week of March 2020, asked media not to report that the virus originated in China. This is despite the fact that the origin of the virus was never in dispute, even in the Chinese state media and Ministry for Foreign Affairs (MOFA). ¹⁰ The Xinhua News Agency, Global Times, China Daily, People’s Daily, and China Global Television Network, among other local and provincial media outlets, have published reports and editorials questioning the origin and cause of the virus. They have refuted that the virus originated in China and stated that it originated in the United States. In a press conference on 27 February 2020, Zhong Nanshan, a scientist leading the Chinese government’s response to COVID-19, raised the eyebrows of the global community when he stated that SARS-CoV-2 may not have originated in China. ¹¹ An email sent by the Chinese embassy in Australia for foreign journalists stated, “suggested journalists are politicizing the coronavirus by suggesting it originated in China.” ¹² On 9 March 2020, China’s MOFA commented on Twitter that “China’s endeavor to combating the epidemic has bought time for int’l preparedness.” ¹³

In fact, China has turned the tables on the United States and has become much more offensive in externalizing the blame. In an astonishing volte-face, Chinese diplomats, as well as the spokesperson for MOFA have engaged in an outright campaign of denial and misinformation. In one such move, the government authorized a campaign to blame the United States military for bringing the virus into China during the Military World Games held in Wuhan in October 2019.

Continuing this disinformation campaign, China’s diplomatic corps has conducted more than 400 interviews and written more than 300 articles on SARS-CoV-2. ¹⁴ On 22 March 2020, Lijian Zhao, the spokesperson and deputy director of the information department at MOFA, commented on Twitter that the, “US CDC admitted some COVID19 patients were misdiagnosed as flu during 2019 flu season. 34 million infected and 20,000 dies. If COVID19 began last September, & US has been lack of testing ability, how many would have been infected? US should find out when patient zero appeared.” ¹⁵ Furthermore, Hua Chunying, director of the information department at MOFA, wrote on Twitter that thirty-six million United States citizens were infected by flu and twenty-two thousand died. More importantly, she also stated (out of context) that the United States CDC admitted that some of the cases were COVID-19. ¹⁶ Later, China cited (out of context) Giuseppe Remuzzi, director of the Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research in Milan, to claim that SARS CoV-2 originated in Lombardy, Italy in October 2019. ¹⁷ China also expelled thirteen journalists from United States media outlets, such as the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times, and the Washington Post, as demands grew for greater transparency in combating COVID-19. ¹⁸

However, none of the media outlets, Chinese officials, or netizens have provided an explanation to substantiate their hypotheses. A spanner in the works was thrown by China’s ambassador to the United States, Cui Tiankai. In an interview on 22 March 2020, Ambassador Cui reaffirmed his statement made on 9 February 2020 that SARS-CoV-2 was not developed in a United States military laboratory. Scientists have also categorically stated that the virus has natural origins, and epidemiologists have confirmed that the virus originated from China, further undermining the claims made by Chinese officials and media. ¹⁹

In a second initiative to place China in a positive light, President Xi has declared victory over SARS-CoV-2. Reports indicate that no new infections are being reported in China, and the country is highlighting this as its achievement. On the contrary, Chinese sources are reporting imported cases of COVID-19. ²⁰ China has also zealously highlighted the struggles faced by the United States and European countries, with Beijing and Chinese citizens criticizing the shortcomings and inefficiencies of Western governments, especially the United States, in tackling COVID-19. To this end, China quoted the director general of the WHO, who, on 13 March 2020, stated that Europe was now the global epicenter of COVID-19. China also reported that there were fewer cases during the peak than were being reported outside China.

In a third effort to place the country in a positive light, China has provided medical assistance and vital health equipment, and has been willing to share its expertise with various countries in tackling the pandemic. China announced that it will provide aid to 82 countries, the WHO, and the African Union. The country has also sent medical aid, such as ventilators and other intensive care unit (ICU) facilities, masks, gloves and testing kits, medicines, and portable colour ultrasound equipment. The government sent additional medical experts and offered training to countries across the globe. Chinese media and MOFA officials have left no stone unturned to cultivate in these countries gratitude towards China. In addition to offering medical aid across the world, China also donated US$20 million to the WHO and provided a low interest loan of US$500 million to be paid over 10 years to Sri Lanka to combat COVID-19. ²¹

In addition to direct aid from the Chinese government, Chinese philanthropic foundations and companies have joined in giving aid. The Alibaba Foundation and the Jack Ma Foundation have both pledged to donate medical equipment (1000 medical-use face shields and protective suits, 100,000 masks, and 20,000 testing kits) to all 54 countries in Africa. The two foundations have already provided medical assistance to France, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Ukraine, Iran, Iraq, South Korea, and Japan, and the Jack Ma Foundation also announced a donation of 1,000,000 masks and 500,000 testing kits to the United States. The Jack Ma Foundation also published a handbook to help countries fight COVID-19. Huawei has also provided testing kits and masks to Italy, Ireland, Spain, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Holland. Furthermore, Oppo, Xiaomi, and other Chinese smartphone companies have also sent thousands of masks to European countries.

Why changing the COVID-19 narrative is important for China

There are three reasons why China is trying to change the narrative regarding COVID-19. The first is China’s quest for great power status. Under President Xi, China wants to be recognized as a great power (some experts say a superpower) and has launched the ambitious trillion-dollar Belt and Road Initiative and multilateral financial institutions, such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the Silk Road Fund. The country has become a key proponent of globalization, provided financial assistance and loans, and built infrastructure in more than 100 countries. It is also trying to change the rules of the game, have a bigger voice in decision-making in global institutions, and become a rule maker rather than a rule taker.

The stakes are very high for China. The Chinese leadership is afraid that the virus outbreak may force the world to focus on China’s less developed domestic conditions, environmental degradation, intrusive and malfunctioning government, and poor public health-care system. These issues might change global perceptions regarding China. China’s leadership is trying to shift the blame for its initial botched response to COVID-19, which highlights the shortcomings of its political system—structural flaws and the government’s incompetence. China is also concerned that it might be blamed for the ensuing global recession, which would sound a death knell for China’s reputation. Such an outcome has the potential to shift manufacturing and trade away from China, which will adversely affect its economy and its aspirations for great/superpower status.

The Chinese government’s tactic of shifting blame during a crisis is not new. There are numerous instances in which China has used nationalism to not only shift the blame but also to galvanize the Chinese public in times of crisis. During the Cold War, Chinese propaganda targeted the United States as an imperial power. The recent targeting of the United States can be traced to the geopolitical struggle between the two countries in the Asia-Pacific. For instance, the Chinese government drummed up nationalism in the United States–China trade war, maintaining that the United States, especially President Donald Trump, is responsible for it. In another example of Chinese propaganda, an article published in the People’s Daily labelled the United States as the “Enemy of the world.” ²² China claims that the United States wants to curtail China’s rise because it envisages a rising and economically and militarily strong China as a threat to its hegemony. However, as much as the Chinese government blames the United States for its struggles, it never informed its citizens regarding its own violation of World Trade Organization rules, such as providing subsidies and tax rebates to enterprises geared towards exports, or the practice of dumping and manipulating its currency, among others.

China’s provision of aid to countries helps to portray China as a Good Samaritan, a responsible and reliable partner, and to change the narrative on COVID-19. China is using COVID-19 to portray itself as an essential global power. It is a manufacturing powerhouse and the largest producer of medical equipment such as masks, gloves, ventilators, and other ICU facilities. It has the capability and the capacity to provide global public goods, especially when the developed West, led by the United States, has failed to do so. China is concerned about its global image and standing in world affairs. Consequently, the country is using COVID-19 to frame its global assistance concerning the pandemic to push President Xi’s rhetoric of a “community of common destiny,” part of the country’s Belt and Road Initiative narrative.

Additionally, China is reciprocating aid because it received substantial aid from international organizations and 80 countries, including the European Union (EU), in the initial stages of the virus outbreak. Pakistan, Japan, Iran, Egypt, Cambodia, Brunei, Belarus and international organizations, such as the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund donated disinfectants, gloves, protective suits, and face masks to China. The United States pledged to spend US$100 million to help China and other countries to combat SARS-CoV-2 and sent 17.8 tons of medical equipment to China. The private sector in the United States also donated hundreds of millions of dollars to China. The EU sent more than 50 tons of medical supplies to China and also allocated €10 million for research to combat SARS-CoV-2. The Japanese government and private sector have also sent medical supplies and made monetary contributions to China. Hence, the Chinese government and Chinese enterprises have provided medical assistance and personal protective equipment to numerous countries (discussed above). China’s actions are based on a quote from the Book of Songs: “You throw a peach to me, I give you a white jade for friendship.” The quote signifies the country’s traditional virtue of repaying kindness with greater goodwill.

The need to maintain the CPC’s regime legitimacy also plays a role in the Chinese government’s efforts to change the COVID-19 narrative. President Xi’s legitimacy is built on technocratic competence. The outbreak has the potential to seriously dent his personal legacy. Chinese citizens have criticized not only the local and provincial governments in Wuhan and Hubei, but also the central government led by President Xi for their initial mishandling of the virus outbreak. Xi’s credibility as a populist leader has been diminished by his absence from the frontlines in the battle against COVID-19. The death of doctor Li Wenliang (who has been declared a national hero), led to an outpouring of national grief, anger, mistrust, and criticism of the CPC and President Xi, even from executives, academics, and prominent officials. People were incensed with the government’s disingenuity about doctor Li’s death and the extent to which the government was willing to exert control.

Doctor Li’s death became the top trending topic on Chinese social media with an estimated 1.5 billion views. Since then, it has become an issue that has both galvanized the public and prompted further mishandling by government figures. There were calls on social media platforms in China for more freedom of speech, demands for the Wuhan government to apologise, and calls for a law to protect whistle-blowers (all the hashtags were censored quickly). On the eve of President Xi’s visit to Wuhan, on 7 March 2020, Wang Zhonglin—Wuhan’s top leader—announced that he planned to offer, “‘gratitude education’ for residents of the city, who should ‘thank the General Secretary, and thank the Chinese Communist Party.’” ²³ Wang’s statement led to intense anger across Chinese social media. Because of the wave of recriminations and criticisms, Wang’s remarks were deleted from the Wuhan government’s WeChat account and the CPC affiliated newspaper Changjiang Daily, where the article was published. Wang’s remarks came a day after a video emerged in which Wuhan residents in high-rise buildings yelled, “Fake! Fake! Everything is fake!” ²⁴ at Vice Premier Sun Chunlan, who was touring the area. It is likely that the CPC’s botched response in the initial stages of COVID-19 may have impacted its support among the urban middle class.

Criticism has come not only from China’s citizens but those within the CPC as well. According to a report published by Radio Free Asia, President Xi is under tremendous pressure from within the CPC for his handling of SARS-CoV-2. The report states that an open letter has been circulating on WeChat since the second week of March 2020 calling for an emergency expanded meeting of the politburo to discuss “Xi’s issues” and to decide whether he should step down from his posts. It has been difficult to trace the origins of the letter. Citing Wu Qian, former Professor at Tsinghua University, the report says the letter emerged after the disappearance of Ren Zhiqiang, a social media star and property tycoon who criticized the government’s response to COVID-19. Citing Wu, it also states that there is growing divergence between Xi and second generation “princelings” in the CPC who are disappointed and discontent with Xi because of Ren Zhiqiang’s disappearance. ²⁵

The brewing discontent has prompted the party-state to leave no stone unturned to disassociate COVID-19 from Wuhan and China. If China’s reputation is affected, it will lead to a decrease in foreign investments. China may no longer be a part of the global/regional supply chains, which will, in turn, severely impact economic growth and the CPC’s regime legitimacy. This, in addition to a global economic meltdown, will negatively impact China’s exports and reduce economic growth. Finally, COVID-19 may also lend support to anti-globalization voices (paradoxically, China under President Xi has become the new champion of globalization in an attempt to boost the Belt and Road Initiative China’s economy, and its status in the world).

Thus, China has declared no new cases in mainland China. The declaration complements the narrative of China winning the war against COVID-19, downplaying its role in spreading the virus, illustrating the efficacy of its system, comparing its success vis-à-vis the West, especially the United States, and telling the domestic audience that China is the world’s saviour. This illustrates China’s victory in the “people’s war” over SARS-CoV-2, led by Commander-in-Chief, President Xi. It also helps elevate Xi’s position as both a global leader and a model for leaders and people across the globe to emulate, and it strengthens his domestic political legitimacy in the eyes of the Chinese people.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic has underlined the worst facets of the Chinese command and control system of governance since President Xi assumed power. Thus, the party-state is leaving no stone unturned to disassociate COVID-19 from Wuhan and China. The campaign to change the COVID-19 narrative is an attempt to shore up support for the regime, especially President Xi, who, according to Chinese official sources, has been spearheading the fight against COVID-19. The Chinese government declaration of victory over COVID-19 aims to illustrate Xi’s leadership abilities, the superiority of China’s political and economic system, and the heroic efforts of the Chinese people led by the CPC.

Finally, the pandemic has led to an increase in anti-China and anti-Chinese sentiment. Citizens living in China, those overseas, and those who appear to be Chinese have been subject to racism and violent attacks. As the situation worsens, it will blow up and, unfortunately, may lead to further attacks and xenophobia. Another unintended consequence is the increase in xenophobia and racism in China against foreigners who are perceived as spreading SARS-CoV-2.