The authors use data from the Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (C-NLSY79) to examine gender differences in the associations between child behavioral problems and early adult earnings. They find large and significant earnings penalties for women who exhibited more headstrong behavior and for men who exhibited more dependent behavior as children. By contrast, the authors observe no penalties for men who were headstrong or for women who were dependent. Although other child behavioral problems are also associated with labor market earnings, their associations did not differ significantly by gender. The gender differences in headstrong and dependent behavior are not explained by education, marriage, depression, self-esteem, health, or adult personality traits. One potential explanation is that these gender differences are a consequence of deviations from gender norms and stereotypes in the workplace.
AkerlofGeorgeKrantonRachel. 2000. Economics and identity. Quarterly Journal of Economics115(3): 715–53.
2.
AttanasioOrazioBlundellRichardContiGabriellaMasonGiacomo. 2020. Inequality in socio-emotional skills: A cross-cohort comparison. Journal of Public Economics191: Article 104171.
3.
AutorDavidFiglioDavidKarbownikKrzysztofRothJeffreyWassermanMelanie. 2019. Family disadvantage and the gender gap in behavioral and educational outcomes. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics11(3): 338–81.
4.
BabcockLindaLascheverSara. 2003. Women Don’t Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
5.
BlauFrancineKahnLawrence. 2017. The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature55(3): 789–865.
6.
BlakemoreJudith. 2003. Children’s beliefs about violating gender norms: Boys shouldn’t look like girls, and girls shouldn’t act like boys. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research48(9–10): 411–19.
7.
BraakmannNils. 2009. The role of psychological traits for the gender gap in full-time employment and wages: Evidence from Germany. SOEP papers on Multidisciplinary Panel Data Research 162. DIW Berlin, German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP).
8.
BrescollVictoriaUhlmannEric. 2008. Can an angry woman get ahead? Status conferral, gender, and expression of emotion in the workplace. Psychological Science19(3): 268–75.
9.
CampbellSusan. 1995. Behavior problems in preschool children: A review of recent research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry36(1): 113–49.
10.
CardDavid. 1999. The causal effect of education on earnings. In AshenfelterOrley C.CardDavid (Eds.), Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3A, pp. 1801–63. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
11.
CaspiAvshalomRobertsBrentShinerRebecca. 2005. Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology56(1): 453–84.
12.
ChenWei J.FaraoneStephen V.BiedermanJosephTsuangMing T.1994. Diagnostic accuracy of the Child Behavior Checklist scales for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A receiver-operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology62(5): 1017–25.
13.
Cobb-ClarkDeborahTanMichelle. 2011. Noncognitive skills, occupational attainment, and relative wages. Labour Economics18(1): 1–13.
14.
CurrieJanetStabileMark. 2006. Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of ADHD. Journal of Health Economics25(6): 1094–111.
15.
DiPreteThomasJenningsJennifer. 2011. Social and behavioral skills and the gender gap in early educational achievement. Social Science Research41(1): 1–15.
16.
DonnellanBrentHillPatrickRobertsBrent. 2015. Personality development across the life span: Current findings and future directions. In MikulincerMarioShaverPhillip R.CooperM. LynneLarsenRandy J. (Eds.), APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 4: Personality Processes and Individual Differences, pp. 107–26. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
17.
DrotarDennisSteinRuth E. K.PerrinEllen C.1995. Methodological issues in using the Child Behavior Checklist and its related instruments in clinical child psychology research. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology24(2): 184–92.
18.
DuncanGregMagnusonKatherine. 2011. The nature and impact of early achievement skills, attention skills, and behavior problems. In DuncanGreg J.MurnaneRichard J. (Eds.), Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances, pp. 47–69. New York and Chicago: Russell Sage Foundation and Spencer Foundation.
19.
EaglyAliceKarauSteven. 2002. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review109(3): 573–98.
20.
EaglyAliceKoenigAnne. 2008. Gender prejudice: On the risks of occupying incongruent roles. In BorgidaEugeneFiskeSusan T. (Eds.), Beyond Common Sense: Psychological Science in the Courtroom, pp. 63–81. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
21.
EaglyAliceNaterChristaMillerDavidKaufmannMichèleSczesnySabine. 2019. Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist75(3): 301–15.
22.
EdlebrockCraigCostelloAnthony J.1988. Convergence between statistically derived behavior problem syndromes and child psychiatric diagnoses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology16(2): 219–31.
23.
Else-QuestNicoleHydeJanetGoldsmithHillVan HulleCarol. 2006. Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychology Bulletin132(1): 33–72.
24.
FerdinandRobert F.2008. Validity of the CBCL/YSR DSM-IV scales anxiety problems and affective problems. Journal of Anxiety Disorders22(1): 126–34.
25.
FiglioDavid. 2007. Boys named Sue: Disruptive children and their peers. Education Finance and Policy2(4): 376–94.
26.
FilerRandall K.1983. Sexual differences in earnings: The role of individual personalities and tastes. Journal of Human Resources18(1): 82–99.
27.
FletcherJason. 2013. The effects of personality traits on adult labor market outcomes: Evidence from siblings. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization2013(89): 122–35.
28.
FletcherJason. 2014. The effects of childhood ADHD on adult labor market outcomes. Health Economics23(2): 159–81.
29.
FletcherJasonWolfeBarbara. 2008. Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of ADHD revisited. Journal of Health Economics27(3): 794–800.
30.
FletcherJasonWolfeBarbara. 2009. Long term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics12(3): 119–38.
31.
Friedman-SokulerNaomiSenikClaudia. 2020. From pink-collar to lab coat: Cultural persistence and diffusion of socialist gender norms. IZA Discussion Paper No. 13385. Bonn, Germany: Institute of Labor Economics.
32.
GensowskiMiriam. 2018. Personality, IQ, and lifetime earnings. Labour Economics51: 170–83.
33.
GintherDonnaZavodnyMadeline. 2001. Is the male marriage premium due to selection? The effect of shotgun weddings on the return to marriage. Journal of Population Economics14(2): 313–28.
34.
GuoweiLiTaljaardMonicaVan den HeuvelEdwinLevineMitchellCookDeborahWellsGeorgeDevereauxPhilipThabaneLehana. 2017. An introduction to multiplicity issues in clinical trials: The what, why, when and how. International Journal of Epidemiology46(2): 746–55.
35.
HalpernDiane F.BenbowCamilla P.GearyDavid C.GurRuben C.HydeJanet ShibleyGernsbacherMorton Ann. 2007. The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest8(1): 1–51.
36.
HeckmanJamesStixrudJoraUrzuaSergio. 2006. The effects of cognitive and non-cognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. Journal of Labor Economics24(3): 411–82.
37.
HeineckGiudo. 2011Does it pay to be nice? Personality and earnings in the UK. Industrial and Labor Relations Review64(5): 1020–38.
38.
HeineckGuidoAngerSilke. 2010. The returns to cognitive abilities and personality traits in Germany. Labour Economics17(3): 535–46.
39.
HinshawStephen. 1992. Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin111(1): 127–55.
40.
Huaqing QiCathyKaiserAnn. 2003. Behavior problems of preschool children from low-income families: Review of the literature. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education23(4): 188–216.
41.
IvanovaMasha Y.AchenbachThomas M.DumenciLeventRescorlaLeslie A.AlmqvistFredrikWeintraubSheilaBilenbergNiels, et al. 2007. Testing the 8-syndrome structure of the Child Behavior Checklist in 30 societies. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology36(3): 405–17.
42.
IvanovaMasha Y.AchenbachThomas M.RescorlaLeslie A.GuoJiesiAlthoffRobert R.KanKees-JanAlmqvistFredrik, et al. 2019. Testing syndromes of psychopathology in parent and youth ratings across societies. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology48(4): 596–609.
43.
JensenPeter S.SalzbergAllan D.RichtersJohn E.WatanabeHenry K.1993. Scales, diagnoses, and child psychopathology: I. CBCL and DISC relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry32(2): 397–406.
44.
JudgeTimothyLivingstonBethHurstCharlice. 2012. Do nice guys—and gals—really finish last? The joint effects of sex and agreeableness on income. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology102(2): 390–407.
45.
KasiusMarianne C.FerdinandRobert F.van den BergHenkVerhulstFrank C.1997. Associations between different diagnostic approaches for child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry38(6): 625–32.
46.
KonoldTimothyWalthallJohannaPiantaRobert. 2004. The behavior of child behavior ratings: Measurement structure of the Child Behavior Checklist across time, informants, and child gender. Behavioral Disorders29(4): 372–83.
47.
KristoffersenJannieObelCarstenSmithNina. 2015. Gender differences in behavioral problems and school outcomes. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization115: 75–93.
48.
McLeodJaneKaiserKaren. 2004. Childhood emotional and behavioral problems and educational attainment. American Sociological Review69(5): 636–58.
49.
MuellerGerritPlugErik. 2006. Estimating the effect of personality on male and female earnings. Industrial and Labor Relations Review60(1): 3–22.
50.
MurnaneRichardWillettJohnLevyFrank. 1995. The growing importance of cognitive skills in wage determination. Review of Economics and Statistics77(2): 251–66.
51.
NakumraBrad J.EbesutaniChadBernsteinAdamChorpitaBruce F.2009. A psychometric analysis of the Child Behavior Checklist DSM-oriented scales. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment31(3): 178–89.
52.
NiederleMurielVesterlundLise. 2007. Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much?Quarterly Journal of Economics122(3): 1067–101.
53.
NyhusEllenPonsEmpar. 2005. The effects of personality on earnings. Journal of Economic Psychology26(3): 363–84.
54.
NyhusEllenPonsEmpar. 2012. Personality and the gender wage gap. Applied Economics44(1): 105–18.
55.
OwensJayanti. 2016. Early childhood behavior problems and the gender gap in educational attainment in the United States. Sociology of Education89(3): 236–58.
56.
PapageorgeNicholasRondaVictorZhengYu. 2019. The economic value of breaking bad: Misbehavior, schooling and the labor market. NBER Working Paper No. 25602. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
57.
ParcelTobyMenaghanElizabeth. 1988. Measuring behavioral problems in a large cross-sectional survey: Reliability and validity for children of the NLS Youth. Columbus: Ohio State University, Department of Sociology.
58.
PrinzDanielChernewMichaelCutlerDavidFraktAustin. 2018. Health and economic activity over the lifecycle: Literature review. NBER Working Paper No. 24865. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
59.
ProschanMichaelWaclawiwMyron. 2000. Practical guidelines for multiplicity adjustment in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials21(6): 527–39.
60.
RudmanLaurieGlickPeter. 2001. Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues57(4): 743–62.
61.
SegalCarmit. 2008. Classroom behavior. Journal of Human Resources43(4): 783–814.
62.
SeligmmanLaura D.OllendickThomas H.LangleyAudra K.BaldacciHeidi Bechtoldt. 2004. The utility of measures of child and adolescent anxiety: A meta-analytic review of the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale, the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children, and the Child Behavior Checklist. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology33(3): 557–65.
63.
ShinerRebeccaDeYoungColin. 2013. The structure of temperament and personality traits: A developmental perspective. In ZelazoPhilip David (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Developmental Psychology, pp. 113–41. New York: Oxford University Press.
64.
van der SluisSophiePoldermanTinca J. C.NealeMichael C.VerhulstFrank C.PosthumaDanielleDielemanGwen C.2017. Sex differences and gender-invariance of mother-reported childhood problem behavior. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research26(3): Article 1498.
65.
WasonJamesStecherLynneManderAdrian. 2014. Correcting for multiple-testing in multi-arm trials: Is it necessary and is it done?Trials15(1): 1–7.
66.
YarnellLisaSargeantMarshaPrescottCarolTilleyJacquelineFarverJoMednickSarnoffVenablesPeterRaineAdrianLuczakSusan. 2013. Measurement invariance of internalizing and externalizing behavioral syndrome factors in a non-Western sample. Assessment20(5): 642–55.
67.
ZafarBasit. 2013. College major choice and the gender gap. Journal of Human Resources48(3): 545–95.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
