Nearly everyone experiences episodes of boredom at work from time to time, regardless of the nature of their job. Previous research on industrial monotony is unable to explain boredom on any but the simplest of tasks. A broader view of the causes of boredom, including attributes of the task, environment, person, and person-environment fit, is proposed. Individual choices of response to feelings of boredom are also considered, and a number of research propositions are suggested.
AHMED, S. M. S.Psychometric properties of the boredom proneness scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1990, 71, 963-966.
2.
ALFREDSSON L., KARASEK, R., & THEORELL, T.Myocardial infarction risk and psychosocial work environment: An analysis of the male Swedish work force. Social Science Medicine, 1982, 16, 463-467.
3.
BERNSTEIN, H. E.Boredom and the ready-made life. Social Research, 1975, 42, 512-537.
4.
BOND, C. F., & TITUS, L. J.Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 1983, 94, 265-292.
5.
BREHM, S. S., & BREHM, J. W.Psychological Reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
6.
BRYANT, J., & ZILLMAN, D.Using television to alleviate boredom and stress: Selective exposure as a function of induced excitational states. Journal of Broadcasting, 1984, 28, 1-20.
7.
BUCK, R.Human motivation and emotion. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
8.
CAPLAN, R. D., COBB, S., FRENCH, J. R. P., Jr., HARRISON, R. V., & PINNEAU, S. R., Jr.Job demands and worker health. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1975.
9.
COX, T.Repetitive work. In C. L. Cooper and R. Payne (eds.), Current concerns in occupational stress. Chichester, Great Britain: John Wiley & Sons, 1980.
10.
CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, M.Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975.
11.
CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, M.Attention and the holistic approach to behavior. In J. K. Pope and J. L. Singer (Eds.), The stream of consciousness. New York: Plenum Press, 1978.
12.
DAMRAD-FRYE, R., & LAIRD, J. D.The experience of boredom: The role of self-perception of attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989, 59, 315-320.
13.
DAVIES, D. R., & PARASURAMAN, R.The psychology of vigilance. London: Academic Press, 1982.
14.
DAVIES, D. R., SHACKLETON, V. J., & PARASURAMAN, R.Monotony and boredom. In R. Hockey (Ed.), Stress and fatigue in human performance. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1983, pp. 1-32.
15.
DECHENNE, T. K., & MOODY, A. J.Boredom: Theory and therapy. Psychotherapy- Patient, Spring/Summer, 3, 1987, 17-29.
16.
DECI, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum, 1985.
17.
DRORY, A.Individual differences in boredom proneness and task effectiveness at work. Personnel Psychology, 1982, 35, 141-151.
18.
EYSENCK, H. J.The biological basis of personality. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1967.
19.
FISHER, C. D.Boredom: Construct, causes, and consequences. Technical report ONR-9, Texas A&M University, 1987.
20.
FARMER, R., & SUNDBERG, N. D.Boredom proneness: The development and correlates of a new scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 1986, 50, 4-17.
21.
FENICHEL, O.On the psychology of boredom. In R. Rapaport (Ed.), Organization and pathology of thought. New York: Columbia University Press, 1951, pp. 349-361.
22.
FRANKENHAUSER, M., & GARDELL, B.Underload and overload in working life: A multidisciplinary approach. Journal of Human Stress, 1976, 2, 35-46.
23.
GABRIEL, M. A.Boredom: Exploration of a developmental perspective. Clinical Social Work Journal, 1988, 16, 156-164.
24.
GARDNER, D. G.Task complexity effects on non-taskrelated movements: A test of activation theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1990, 45, 209-231.
25.
GARDNER, D. G., & CUMMINGS, L. L.Activation theory and job design: Review and reconceptualization. Research in Organizational Behavior, 1988, 10, 81-122.
26.
GEIWITZ, J. P.Structure of boredom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 3, 592-600.
27.
GINSBURG, S. G.Diagnosing and treating managerial malaise. Personnel1984, 61, 34-41.
28.
GRIFFIN, R. W.Objective and social sources of information on task redesign: A field experiment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983, 28, 184-200.
29.
GROSE, V. L.Coping with boredom in the cockpit before it's too late. Professional Safety, 1989, 34:(7), 24-26.
30.
GUEST, D., WILLIAMS, R., & DEWE, P.Job Design and the Psychology of Boredom. Presented at the 19th International Congress of Applied Psychology, Munich, West Germany, 1978.
31.
HACKMAN, J. R., & OLDHAM, G. R.Work redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980.
32.
HAMILTON, J.Development of interest and enjoyment in adolescence. Part II. Boredom and psychopathology. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 1983, 12, 363-372.
33.
HARRIS, M. B.Effects of altruism on mood. Journal of Social Psychology, 1977, 102, 197-208.
34.
HILL, A. B.Extraversion and variety-seeking in a monotonous task. British Journal of Psychology, 1975, 66, 9-13. (a)
35.
HILL, A. B.Work variety and individual differences in occupational boredom. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 128-131. (b)
36.
HILL, A. B., & PERKINS, R. E.Towards a model of boredom. British Journal of Psychology, 198576, 235-240.
37.
KIECHELL, W., IIIChairman of the bored. Fortune, March 5, 1984, 175-176.
38.
KISHIDA, K.A study of subsidiary behavior in monotonous work. International Journal of Production Research, 1977, 15, 609-621.
39.
KLINGER, E.Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people's lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977.
40.
KLINGER, E.Modes of normal conscious flow. In K. S. Pope and J. L. Singer (Eds.), The stream of consciousness. New York: Plenum, 1978, pp. 225-258.
41.
KLINGER, E.On the self-management of mood, affect, and attention. In P. Karoly and F. H. Kanfer (Eds.), Self-managenment and behavior change. New York: Pergamon, 1982, pp. 129-164.
42.
KLINGER, E.Current concerns and disengagement from incentives. In F. Halisch and J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987, pp. 337-347.
43.
KLINGER, E., BARTA, S. G., & MAXEINER, M. E.Motivational correlates of thought content frequency and commitment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 198039, 1222-1237.
44.
KULIK, C. T., OLDHAM, G. R., & HACKMAN, J. R.Work design as an approach to person-environment fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1987, 31, 278-296.
45.
LAZARUS, R. S.Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. American Psychologist, 1982, 37, 1019-1024.
46.
LAZARUS, R. S., KANNER, A. D., & FOLKMAN, S.Emotions: A cognitive-phenomenological analysis. In R. Plutchick and H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: theory, research, and experience. New York: Academic Press, 1980, pp. 189-217.
47.
LEARY, M. R., ROGERS, P. A., CANFIELD, R. W., & COE, C.Boredom in interpersonal encounters: Antecedents and social implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 51, 968-975.
48.
LEPPER, M. R., & GREEN D. (Eds.). The hidden costs of reward. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlaum, 1978.
49.
LINVILLE, P. W.Affective consequences of complexity regarding the self and others. In M. S. Clark and S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Affect and cognition: The 17th annual Carnegie symposium on cognition, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1982.
50.
LOCKE, E. A., & BRYAN, J. F.Performance goals as determinants of level of performance and boredom. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1967, 51, 120-130.
51.
LOCKE, E. A., & LATHAM, G. P.A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
52.
LONDON, H., & MONELL, L.Cognitive manipulations of boredom. In H. London and R. Nisbett (Eds.), Thought and feeling. Chicago: Aldine, 1974, pp. 44-59.
53.
LONDON, H., SCHUBERT, D. S. P., & WASHBURN, D.Increase of autonomic arousal by boredom. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1972, 80, 29-36.
54.
MAYER, J. D., & GASCHKE, Y. N.The experience and meta-experience of mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1988, 55, 102-111.
55.
McBAIN, W. N.Noise, the "arousal hypothesis," and monotonous work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1961, 45, 309-317.
56.
MERRENS, M. R., & GARRETT, J. B.The Protestant work ethic scale as a predictor of repetitive work performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60, 125-127.
57.
MORRIS, W. N., & REILLY, N. P.Toward the self-regulation of mood: theory and research. Motivation and Emotion, 1987, 11, 215-249.
58.
MOSSHOLDER, K. W.Effects of externally mediated goal setting on intrinsic motivation: A laboratory experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1980, 65, 202-210.
59.
O'HANLON, J. F.Boredom: Practical consequences and a theory. Acta Psychologica, 1981, 49, 53-82.
60.
ORCUTT, J. D.Contrasting effects of two kinds of boredom on alcohol use. Journal of Drug Issues, 1984, 14, 161-173.
61.
ORGAN, D. W.Organizational citizenship behavior. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988.
62.
ORTH-GOMER, K., HAMSTEN, A., PERSKI, A., THEORELL, T., & De FAIRE, U.Type A Behavior, Education and Psychosocial Work Characteristics in Relation to Ischemic Heart Disease: A Case Control Study of Myocardial Infarction Patients Below 45. Manuscript, National Institute of Psychosocial Factors and Health, Stockholm (Cited in Theorell, T. Stress at work and risk of myocardial infarction. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 1986, 62, 791-795).
63.
PERKINS, R. E., & HILL, A. B.Cognitive and affective aspects of boredom. British Journal of Psychology, 1985, 76, 221-234.
64.
RUNCIE, J. F.By days I make the cars. Harvard Business Review, May-June 1980, 106-115.
65.
RUSSELL, J. A.A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1980, 39, 1161-1178.
66.
RYAN, R. M.Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 43, 450-461.
67.
SAITO, H., KISHIDA, K., ENDO, Y., & SAITO, M.Studies on bottle inspection task, 1. Comparisons of different work control systems. Journal of Science of Labor, 1972, 48, 475-532.
68.
SALES, S. M.Some effects of role overload and role underload. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1970, 5, 592-608.
69.
SAMILOVA, A. J.Morbidity with temporary loss of working capacity of female workers engaged in monotonous work. Sovietskia Zdravoak Hranenie, 1971, 30, 41-46.
70.
SCHALLER, M., & CIALDINI, R. B.The economics of empathic helping: Support for a mood management motive. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 1988, 24, 163-181.
71.
SCOTT, W. E., Jr.Activation theory and task design. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1966, 1, 3-30.
72.
SHAW, J. B., & WEEKLEY, J. A.The effects of objective work-load variations on psychological strain and post-work-load performance. Journal of Management, 1985, 11, 87-98.
73.
SIMS, H. P., SZILAGYI, A. D., & KELLER, R. T.The measurement of job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 1976, 19, 195-212.
74.
SMITH C. A., & ELLSWORTH, P. C.Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality Social Psychology, 1985, 48, 813-838.
75.
SMITH, C. A., ORGAN, D. W., & NEAR, J. P.Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Jouiral of Applied Psychology, 1983, 68, 653-663.
76.
SMITH, P. C.The prediction of individual differences in susceptibility to industrial monotony. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1955, 39, 322-329.
77.
SMITH, R. P.Boredom: A review. Human Factors, 1981, 23, 329-340.
78.
STAGNER, R.Boredom on the assembly line: Age and personality variables. Industrial Gerontology, 1975, 2, 23-44.
79.
STAW, B. M.Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1976.
80.
THACKRAY, R. I.The stress of boredom and monotony: A consideration of the evidence. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1981, 43, 165-176.
81.
THOMAS, J., & GRIFFIN, R.The social information processing model of task design: A review of the literature. Academy of Management Review, 1983, 8, 672-682.
82.
THOMPSON, L. A.Measuring susceptibility to monotony. Personnel Journal, 1929, 8, 172-197.
83.
TRIST, E. L., & BAMFORTH, K. W.Some social and psychological consequences of the long-wall method of coal-getting. Human Relations, 1951, 4, 3-38.
84.
TURNER, A. N., & LAWRENCE, P. R.Industrial jobs and the worker. Boston: Harvard University Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1965.
85.
WASSON, A. S.Susceptibility to boredom and deviant behavior at school. Psychological Reports, 1981, 48, 901-902.
86.
WEISS, H. M., & SHAW, J. B.Social influence on judgments about tasks. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1979, 24, 126-140.
87.
WHITE, R. W.Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review,1959, 66, 279-333.
88.
WILLIAMS, L. J., PODSAKOFF, P. M., & HUBER, V. Determinants of organizational citizenship behaviors: A structural equation analysis with cross-validation. University of Indiana, Bloomington, IN., 1986. Unpublished manuscript.
89.
WOOD, R. E.Task complexity: Defining the construct. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1986, 37, 60-82.
90.
ZALESNY, M. D., & FORD, K. D.Extending the social information processing perspective: New links to attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1990, 47, 205-246.