There is evidence for the importance of strong ties in job referral among Chinese working people. The principle of reciprocity in exchange theory has been used as an explanation for this. According to the theory, a job seeker who has more resources is more appealing to a matchmaker, who is then more likely to refer the job seeker to a more rewarding job. A strong tie acts to enhance the expectation of reciprocity from the referred person. This study of Chinese working people in Shanghai seeks to identify the effect of strong ties on job referral. The results point to the advantages of having strong ties in job referral, which include not just earnings but also satisfaction from the referred job. Importantly, people with more resources benefit more from job referral through a matchmaker, particularly when the tie with the matchmaker is strong.
Aryee, S. & Luk, V.Work and nonwork influences on the career satisfaction of dual-earner couples . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1996, 49, 38–52 .
2.
Barling, J. , Kehoway, E.K. & Iverson, R.D.High-quality work, job satisfaction, and occupational injuries . Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, 88(2), 276–283 .
3.
Batson, C.D. , Batson, J.G. , Todd, R.M. , Brumett, B.H. , Shaw, L.L. & Aldeguer, C.M.R.Empathy and the collective good: Caring for one of the others in a social dilemma . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 1995, 68(4), 619–631 .
4.
Bian, Y.Bringing strong ties back in: Indirect ties, network bridges, and job searches in China . American Sociological Review, 1997, 62, 366–385 .
5.
Bian, Y.Guanxi capital and social eating in Chinese cities: Theoretical models and empirical analysis. In N. Lin , K. Cook & R.S. Burt (Eds), Social capital: Theory and research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter , 2001, pp. 275–295.
6.
Bian, Y.Institutional holes and job mobility processes: Guanxi mechanisms in China's emergent labor markets. In T. Gold , D. Guthrie & D. Wank (Eds), Social connection in China: Institutions, culture, and the changing nature of guanxi. Cambridge: Cambridge , 2002, pp. 117–135.
7.
Bian, Y. & Ang, S.Guanxi networks and job mobility in China and Singapore . Social Forces, 1997, 75(3), 981–1005 .
8.
Bian, Y. & Zhang, Z.Marketization and income distribution in urban China, 1988 and 1945 . Research in Social Stratification & Mobility, 2002, 19, 377–415 .
9.
Blank, R.M. , Dababy, M. & Citro, C.F.Measuring racial discrimination. Washington, DC: National Academies , 2004.
10.
Blau, P.M. & Ruan, D.Inequality of opportunity in urban China and America . Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 1990, 9, 3–22 .
11.
Brown, D.W. & Konrad, A.M.Granovetter was right: The importance of weak ties to a contemporary job search . Group & Organization Management, 2001, 26(4), 434–462 .
12.
Burt, R.S.Structural holes: The social structure of competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press , 1992.
13.
Calantone, R.J. & Zhao, Y.S.Joint ventures in China: A comparative study of Japanese, Korea, and US partners . Journal of International Marketing, 2000, 9(1), 1–23 .
14.
Cao, Y.Careers inside organizations: A comparative study of promotion determination in reforming China . Social Forces, 2001, 80(2), 683–712 .
15.
Chemers, M.M.An integrative theory of leadership. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum , 1997.
16.
Chow, C.K.W. , Fung, M.K.Y. & Ngo, H.Y.Job turnover in China: A case study of Shanghai's manufacturing enterprises . Industrial Relations, 1999, 38(4), 482–503 .
17.
Chow, I.H.-S. & Ng, I.The characteristics of Chinese personal ties (guanxi): Evidence from Hong Kong . Organization Studies, 2004, 25: 1075–1093 .
18.
Cole, D.A.Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1987, 55(4), 584–594 .
19.
Cook, K.S. , Emerson, R.M. , Gillmore, M.R. & Yomagishi, T.The distribution of power in exchange networks: Theory and experimental results . American Journal of Sociology, 1983, 89(2), 275–305 .
20.
Crysdale, S. , King, A.J.C. & Mandell, N.On their own? Making the transition from school to work in the information age. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press , 1999.
21.
D'Souza, C.An inference of gift-giving within Asian business culture . Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing & Logistics, 2003, 15(1/2), 27–38 .
22.
Ducharme, L. & Martin, J.K.Unrewarding work, coworker support, and job satisfaction . Work & Occupations, 2000, 27(2), 223–253 .
23.
Erickson, B.H.Good networks and good jobs: The value of social capital to employers and employees. In N. Lin , K. Cook & R.S. Burt (Eds), Social capital: Theory and research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter , 2001, pp. 127–158.
24.
Erickson, B.H.The distribution of gendered social capital in Canada. In H. Flap & B. Volker (Eds), Creation and returns of social capital: A new research program. London: Routledge , 2004, pp. 27–50.
25.
Feeney, B.C. & Collins, N.L.Predictors of caregiving in adult intimate relationships: An attachment theoretical perspective . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 2001, 80(6), 972–994 .
26.
Flap, H. & Boxman, E.Getting started: The influence of social capital on the start of the occupational career. In N. Lin , K. Cook & R.S. Burt (Eds), Social capital: Theory and research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter , 2001, pp. 159–181.
27.
Friedman, R.A. & Krackhardt, D.Social capital and career mobility . Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1997, 33(3), 316–334 .
28.
Granovetter, M.Getting a job: A study of contacts and careers. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press , 1995.
29.
Greenberg, E.S. & Grunberg, L.Work alienation and problem alcohol behavior . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 1995, 36(1), 83–102 .
30.
Guo, Z. , Goldstein, A. & Goldstein, S.Changing family and household structure. In A. Goldstein & F. Wang (Eds), China: The many facets of demographic change. Boulder, CO: Westview , 1996, pp. 123–134.
31.
Hansen, M.T.The search-transfer problem: The role of weak ties in sharing knowledge across organization subunits . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1999, 44(1), 82–111 .
32.
Hansen, M.T. , Podolny, J.M. & Pfeffer, J.So many ties, so little time: A task contingency perspective on corporate social capital in organizations . Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 2001, 18, 21–57 .
33.
Hanser, A.Youth job searches in urban China: The use of social connections in a changing labor market. In T. Gold , D. Guthrie & D. Wank (Eds), Social connection in China: Institutions, culture, and the changing nature of guanxi. Cambridge: Cambridge , 2002, pp. 137–161.
34.
Hong, J. & Engestrom, Y.Changing principles of communication between Chinese managers and workers: Confucian authority chains and guanxi as social networking . Management Communication Quarterly, 2004, 17(4), 552–585 .
35.
Howard, A.Work and family crossroads: Spanning the career. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), Work, families, and organization. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass , 1992, pp. 70–137.
36.
Hu, L. & Bentler, P.M.Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives . Structural Equation Modeling, 1999, 6(1), 1–55 .
37.
Hu, Y.Guanxi community. Beijing, China: People , 2005.
38.
Hui, C. & Graen, G.Guanxi and professional leadership in contemporary Sino-American joint ventures in mainland China . Leadership Quarterly, 1997, 8(4), 451–465 .
39.
Hui, M.K. , Au, K. & Fock, H.Empowerment effects across cultures . Journal of International Business Studies, 2004, 35, 46–60 .
40.
Johanson, J.-E.The balance of corporate social capital . Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 2001, 18, 231–261 .
41.
Kalleberg, A.L. & Mastekaasa, A.Satisfied movers, committed stayers: The impact of job mobility on work attitudes in Norway . Work & Occupations, 2001, 28(2), 183–209 .
42.
Keister, L.A.Exchange structures in transition: Lending and trade relations in Chinese business groups . American Sociological Review, 2001, 66(3), 336–360 .
43.
Kipnis, A.Practices of guanxi: Production and practices of guanxi. In T. Gold , D. Guthrie & D. Wank (Eds), Social connection in China: Institutions, culture, and the changing nature of guanxi. Cambridge: Cambridge , 2002, pp. 21–36.
44.
Kiyak, H.A. & Namazin, K.H.Job commitment and turnover among women working in facilities serving older persons . Research on Aging, 1999, 19(2), 223–246 .
45.
Lawler, E.J.An affect theory of social exchange . American Journal of Sociology, 2001, 107(2), 321–352 .
46.
Le, G.Contemporary Chinese interpersonal relationship research. Tianjin, China: Nankai University , 2002.
47.
Lee, G.O.M. & Warner, M.Labour-market policies in Shanghai and Hong Kong . International Journal of Manpower, 2002, 23(6), 505–527 .
48.
Li, J. & Wright, P.C.Guanxi and the realities of career development: A Chinese perspective . Career Development International, 2000, 5(7), 369–389 .
49.
Lin, N.Social networks and status attainment . Annual Review of Sociology, 1999, 25, 467–487 .
50.
Lin, N.Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 2001.
51.
Lin, N. & Dumin, M.Access to occupations through social ties . Social Networks, 1986, 8, 365–385 .
52.
Liu, Z.The economic impact and determinants of investment in human and political capital in China . Economic Development & Cultural Change, 2003, 51(4), 832–849 .
53.
MacDermid, S.M. , Hertzog, J.L. , Kensinger, K.B. & Zipp, J.F.The role of organizational size and industry in job quality and work-family relationships .Journal of Family & Economic Issues, 2001, 22(2), 191–216 .
54.
Marsden, P.V. & Hurlbert, J.S.Social resources and mobility outcomes: A replication and extension . Social Forces, 1988, 66, 1038–1059 .
55.
Martin, J.E. & Shehan, C.L.Education and job satisfaction: The influences of gender, wage-earning status, and job values . Work and Occupations, 1989, 16(2), 184–199 .
56.
Mealemann, H.Career satisfaction and career success during the transition from youth to adulthood: A panel study of former German high-school students between the ages of 16 and 30. In W. Meeus , M. de Goede , W. Kox & K. Hurrelmann (Eds), Adolescence, careers, and cultures. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter , 1992, pp. 316–329.
57.
Meneken, F.C. & Wimfield, I.Job search and sex segregation: Does sex of social contact matter?Sex Roles, 2000, 42(9/10), 847–864 .
58.
Meng, X.Labor market reform in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 2000.
59.
Molm, L.D.Coercive power in social exchange. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1997.
60.
Morris, J.M. & Villemez, W.J.Mobility potential and job satisfaction: Mixing dispositional and situational explanations . Work and Occupations, 1992, 19(1), 35–58 .
61.
Morrow, V.Conceptualising social capital in relation to the well-being of children and young people: A critical review . Sociological Review, 1999, 47(4), 744–765 .
62.
Muller, G.P.Explaining poverty on the structural constraints of income mobility . Social Indicators Research, 2002, 59, 301–319 .
63.
O'Connell, P.J.Are they working? Market orientation and the effectiveness of active labour-market programmes in Ireland . European Sociological Review, 2002, 18(1), 65–83 .
64.
Paston, D.L. Jr & Duan, C.C.Nonagricultural unemployment in Beijing: A multilevel analysis . Research in Community Sociology, 2000, 10, 289–303 .
65.
Pugliesi, K.Work and well-being, gender differences in the psychological consequences of employment . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 1995, 36, 57–71 .
66.
Requena, F.Social capital, satisfaction and quality of life in the workplace . Social Indicator Research, 2003, 61(3), 331–340 .
67.
Rosenbaum, J.E. , DeLuca, S. , Miller, S.R. & Roy, K.Pathways into work: Short- and long-term effects of personal and institutional ties . Sociology of Education, 1999, 72, 179–196 .
68.
Shu, X. & Bian, Y.Market transition and gender gap in earnings in urban China . Social Forces, 2003, 81(4), 1107–1145 .
Sousa-Poza, A. & Sousa-Poza, A.A.Well-being at work: A cross-national analysis of the levels and determinants of job satisfaction . Journal of Socio-Economics, 2000, 29(6), 517–538 .
71.
Spilerman, S. & Ishida, H.Stratification and attainment in a large Japanese firms. In A.C. Kerckhoff (Ed.), Generating social stratification: Toward a new research agenda. Boulder, CO: Westview , 1996, pp. 317–342.
72.
Steffy, B.D. & Jones, J.W.Differences between full-time and part-time employees in perceived role strain and work satisfaction . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1990, 11, 321–329 .
73.
Tan, D. & Snell, R.S.The third eye: Exploring guanxi and relational morality in the workplace . Journal of Business Ethics, 2002, 41(4), 361–384 .
74.
Thomas, D.C. & Au, K.The effect of cultural differences on behavioral responses to low job satisfaction . Journal of International Business Studies, 2002, 33(2), 309–326 .
75.
Triandis, H.C.Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview , 1995.
76.
Tzeng, O.C.S.Measurement of love and intimate relations: Theories, scales, and applications for love development, maintenance, and dissolution. Westport, CT: Praeger , 1993.
77.
Volker, B. & Flap, H.Work ties as a liability: The case of East Germany . Rationality & Society, 2001, 13(4), 397–428 .
78.
von Hippel, C. , Greenberger, D.B. , Heneman, R.L. , Mangum, S.L. & Skoglind, J.D.Voluntary and involuntary temporary employees: Predicting satisfaction, commitment, and personal control . Research in the Sociology of Work, 2000, 9, 291–309 .
79.
Walder, A.G.Career mobility and the communist political order . American Sociological Review, 1995, 60(3), 309–328 .
80.
Walder, A.G. , Li, B. & Treiman, D.J.Politics and life changes in a state socialist regime: Dual career paths into the urban Chinese elite, 1949 to 1996 . American Sociological Review, 2000, 65, 191–209 .
81.
Watson, D.Correcting for acquiescent response bias in the absence of a balance scale: An application to class consciousness . Sociological Methods & Research, 1992, 21(1), 52–88 .
82.
Williams, A. & Nussbaum, J.F.Intergenerational communication across the life span. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum , 2001.
83.
Wong, Y.H.The dynamics of guanxi in China . Singapore Management Review, 1998, 20(2), 25–42 .
84.
Xiang, L. & Li, S.New trends in income distribution. In L. Jiang , X. Lu & T. Dan (Eds), 2000: Analysis and forecast of China's social situation. Beijing, China: China Social Science , 2001, pp. 139–158.
85.
Yusuf, S. & Wu, W.Pathways to a world city: Shanghai rising in an era of globalization . Urban Studies, 2002, 39(7), 1213–1240 .
86.
Zang, X.Network resources and job search in urban China . Journal of Sociology, 2003, 39(2), 115–129 .
87.
Zhao, W. & Zhou, X.Institutional transformation and returns to education in urban China: An empirical assessment . Research in Social Stratification & Mobility, 2002, 19, 339–375 .
88.
Zhou, X.Economic transformation and income inequality in urban China: Evidence from panel data . American Journal of Sociology, 2000, 105(4), 1135–1174 .
89.
Zhu, J. & Yuan, Z.Shanghai employment report. Shanghai, China: Shanghai People , 2001.
