Geert Hofstede’s legendary national culture research is critiqued. Crucial assumptions which underlie his claim to have uncovered the secrets of entire national cultures are described and challenged. The plausibility of systematically causal national cultures is questioned.
Alexander, J.C.The promise of a cultural sociology: Technological discourse and the sacred and profane information machine. In J.C. Alexander & S. Seidman (Eds), Culture and society: Contemporary debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
2.
Alexander, J.C. & Seidman, S. (Eds) Culture and society: Contemporary debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
3.
Alvesson, M. & Billing, Y.D.Understanding gender and organisations. London: Sage, 1997.
Archer, M.S.Culture & agency: The place of culture in social theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
6.
Banai, M.Review of Geert Hofstede: ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’ . Journal of Management Studies, 1982, 19(4), 351-354.
7.
Baumgartel, H. & Thomas, H.Review of Geert Hofstede: ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’. Personnel Psychology, 1982, 35(1), 192-196.
8.
Bhagat, R.S.Black-white ethnic differences in identification with the work ethic . Academy of Management Review, 1979, 4, 381-391.
9.
Bock, P.K.Rethinking psychological anthropology, 2nd edn.Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1999.
Bond, M.H.Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of values: The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1988, 55(6), 1009-1015.
12.
Bryman, A.Quantity and quality in social research. London: Routledge, 1988.
13.
Connor, W.A nation is a nation, is an ethnic group is a...Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1978, 1(4), 379-388.
14.
Cosco, G.Untitled mimeo, Department of Accounting and Management Information Systems, University of Alberta, 1997.
15.
Crane, D. (Ed.) The sociology of culture. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.
16.
Cray, D. & Mallory, G.Making sense of managing culture. London: International Thompson Business Press, 1998.
17.
Davies, N.The isles: A history. London: Macmillan, 1999.
18.
Deal, T.E. & Kennedy, A.A.Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.
19.
DiMaggio, P.Culture and cognition . Annual Review of Sociology, 1997, 23, 263-287.
20.
d’Iribarne, P.The usefulness of an ethnographic approach to international comparisons of the functioning of organizations . Paper presented at an EGOS Colloquium, Vienna, July 1991, 15-17.
21.
Djelic, M.Exporting the American model: The postwar transformation of European business. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
22.
Dorfman, P.W. & Howell, J.P.Dimensions of national culture and effective leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited. Advances in International Comparative Management, 1988, 3, 127-150.
23.
Etzioni, A.The active society. London: Free Press, 1968.
24.
Farber, M.L.The problem of national character: A methodological analysis . The Journal of Psychology, 1950, 30, 307-316.
25.
Freeman, D.Margaret Mead and Samoa: The making and unmaking of an anthropological myth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.
26.
Fromm, E.Fear of freedom. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960[1942].
27.
Garfinkel, H.Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1967.
28.
Geertz, G.A.The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.
29.
Goodstein, L.D.Commentary: Do American theories apply abroad?Organizational Dynamics, 1981, Summer, 49-54.
30.
Gould, S.J.The mismeasure of man. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981.
31.
Hampden-Turner, C. & Trompenaars, F.Response to Geert Hofstede. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1997, 21(1), 149-159.
32.
Hickson, D.J. & Pugh, D.S.Management worldwide: The impact of societal culture on organizations around the globe. London: Penguin, 1995.
33.
Hofstede, G.Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980a.
34.
Hofstede, G.Motivation, leadership and organization: Do American theories apply abroad?Organizational Dynamics, 1980b, Summer, 42-63.
35.
Hofstede, G.Do American theories apply abroad? A reply to Goodstein and Hunt . Organizational Dynamics, 1981, Summer, 63-68.
36.
Hofstede, G.The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories . Journal of International Business Studies, 1983, Fall, 75-90.
37.
Hofstede, G.Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values, abridged version. London: Sage, 1984.
38.
Hofstede, G.Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill, 1991.
39.
Hofstede, G.Images of Europe: Past, present and future. In P. Joynt & M. Warner (Eds), Managing across cultures: Issues and Perspectives. London: International Thompson Business Press, 1996, pp. 147-165.
40.
Hofstede, G.Attitudes, values and organizational culture: Disentangling the concepts . Organization Studies, 1998a, 19(3), 477-492.
41.
Hofstede, G. & AssociatesMasculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998b.
42.
Hofstede, G.The universal and the specific in 21st-century global management . Organizational Dynamics, 1999, Summer, 34-43.
43.
Hofstede, G. , Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D. & Sanders, G.Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1990, 35, 286-316.
44.
Hofstede, G. & Peterson, M.F.National values and organizational practices. In N.M. Ashkanasy, C.P.M. Wilderom & M.F. Peterson (Eds), Handbook of organizational culture and climate. London: Sage, 2000, pp. 401-405.
45.
Hollan, D.Cross-cultural differences in the self . Journal of Anthropological Research, 1992, 49, 283-300.
46.
Inkeles, A. & Levinson, D.J.National character: The study of modal personality and sociocultural systems. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds), The handbook of social psychology, Vol. 4. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969.
47.
Jelinek, M. , Smircich, L. & Hirsch, P.A code of many colors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983, 28, 331-338.
48.
Kertzer, D.Ritual, politics, and power. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988.
49.
Kondo, D.K.Crafting selves: Power, gender, and discourses of identity in a Japanese workplace. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
50.
Korman, A.K.Review of ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’ . Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 1985, 6(3), 243-244.
51.
Kreweras, G.Review of ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’ . European Journal of Operational Research, 1982, 9, 94.
52.
Kroeber, A.L. & Kluckhohn, C.Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. In Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952.
53.
Leach, E.Political systems of Highland Burma. London: Bell & Sons, 1954.
54.
Lowe, E.A.Review of ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’ . Journal of Enterprise Management, 1981, 3(3), 312.
55.
Lowe, S. & Oswick, C. (1996) Culture: The invisible filters, ch. 6, 90-116. In S. Gatley, R. Lessem & Y. Altman (Eds), Corporate management: A transcultural odyssey. London: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
56.
Lukacs, G.History and class consciousness, trans. R. Livingstone. London: Merlin Press, 1971. (Originally published 1922.)
57.
Lytle, A.L. , Brett, J.M., Barsness, Z.I., Tinsley, C.H. & Janssens, M.A.Paradigm for confirmatory cross-cultural research in organizational behaviour. Research in Organizational Behaviour, 1995, 17, 167-214.
58.
MacIntyre, A.Is a science of comparative politics possible? In A. MacIntyre (Ed.), Against the self-images of the age: Essays on ideology and philosophy. London: Duckworth, 1971.
59.
McSweeney, B.Management by accounting. In A.G. Hopwood & P. Miller (Eds), Accounting as social and institutional practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 237-268.
60.
McSweeney, B.Accounting in organizational action: A subsuming explanation or situated explanations?Accounting, Management & Information Technologies, 1995, 5(3/4), 245-282.
61.
March, J.The Power of power. In D. Easton (Ed.), Varieties of political theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966, pp. 39-70.
62.
Mead, M.National character. In S. Tax (Ed.), Anthropology today. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1962.
63.
Melville, S. & Readings, B.Vision and textuality. London: Macmillan, 1995.
64.
Merelman, R.M.Making something of ourselves: On culture and politics in the United States. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
65.
Morgan, G.Images of organization. London: Sage, 1986.
66.
O’Reilly, C.A. & Roberts, K.H.Job satisfaction among whites and non-whites: A cross-cultural approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1973, 57, 295-299.
67.
Paik, Y. , Vance, C.M. & Stage, H.D.The extent of divergence in human resource practice across three Chinese national cultures: Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore. Human Resource Management Journal, 1996, 6(2), 20-31.
68.
Parker, M.Organizational culture and identity. London: Sage, 2000.
69.
Risberg, A.Ambiguities thereafter: An interpretive approach to acquisitions. Lund: Lund University Press, 1999.
70.
Roberts, A.The very idea of classification in international accounting . Accounting, Organizations & Society, 1995, 20(7/8), 639-664.
71.
Robinson, R.V.Geert Hofstede: ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in workrelated-values’ . Work and Occupations, 1983, 10, 110-115.
72.
Rossi, I.The unconscious in culture. New York: Dutton, 1989.
73.
Salter, S.B. & Niswander, F.Cultural influence on the development of accounting systems internationally. Journal of International Business Studies, 1994, 379-397.
74.
Schein, E.Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1985.
75.
Schmid, M.The concept of culture and its place within a theory of social action. In R. Munch & Neil J. Smelser (Eds), Theory of culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, pp. 88-120.
76.
Schwartz, S.H.Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 1992, 25, 1-65.
77.
Schwartz, S.H.Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S-C. Choi, and G. Yoon (Eds), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods and applications. London: Sage, 1994, pp. 85-119.
78.
Schwarz, N.Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers . American Psychologist, 1999, 54, 93-105.
79.
Shearing, C.D. & Ericson, R.V.Culture as figurative action. The British Journal of Sociology, 1991, 42(4), 481-506.
80.
Slater, P.L.The pursuit of loneliness. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1970.
81.
Smelser, N.J.Culture: coherent or incoherent. In R. Munch & N.J. Smelser (Eds), Theory of culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, 3-28.
82.
Smircich, L.Concepts of culture and organizational analysis . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983, 28, 339-358.
83.
Smith, M.J.Social science in question. London: Sage, 1998.
84.
Smith, P.National cultures and the values of organizational employees: Time for another look. In P. Joynt & M. Warner (Eds), Managing across cultures: Issues and perspectives. London: International Thompson Business Press, 1996, 92-102.
Triandis, H.C.Review of: ‘Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values’ . Human Organization, 1982, 41(1), 86-90.
92.
Triandis, H.C.Review of cultures and organizations: Software of the mind . Administrative Science Quarterly, 1993, 132-134.
93.
Triandis, H.C.Theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of collectivism and individualism. In U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S-C. Choi & G. Yoon (Eds), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods and applications. London: Sage, 1994, pp. 41-51.
94.
Turner, S.The social theory of practices: Tradition, tacit knowledge, and presuppositions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
95.
Wallerstein, I.Culture as the ideological battleground of the modern world-system . Theory, Culture & Society, 1990, 7, 31-55.
96.
Warner, M.Review of: ‘Culture’s consequences’ . Journal of General Management, 1981, 7(1), 75-78.
97.
Whitley, R.The social construction of organizations and markets: The comparative analysis of business recipes. In M. Reed and M. Hughes (Eds.), Rethinking organization. London: Sage, 1992.
98.
Wotherspoon, T. & Satzwich, V.First nations: Race, class, and gender relations. Scarborough: Nelson Canada, 1993.
