Trends in Gender Disparities Among High-Achieving Students in Mathematics: An Analysis of the American Mathematics Competition (AMC)

Abstract

Using the test scores of more than 2,250,000 students who participated in the American Mathematics Competitions (AMC) from 2009 to 2019, this study examined the direction and magnitude of the trends in gender disparity in participation and high achievement in self-select mathematics exams. The results of this study indicated that the male to female ratio among the AMC participants increased significantly from 2009 to 2019. The findings also showed an established disparity that favored males for each year and for all competitions in both the top 1% and 5% levels, while the trend in the male to female ratios over a decade was stable, except for the top 1% of the population in the AMC 8, in which there was a significant increasing trend that favored males. The possible impacts of these findings within the context of the underrepresentation of women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields are discussed.

Keywords

Mann–Kendall trend test gender gap STEM mathematical ability AMC contest

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Andreescu

Gallian

Kane

J. M.

Mertz

J. E.

(2008). Cross-cultural analysis of students with exceptional talent in mathematical problem solving. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 55(10), 1248-1260. http://www.ams.org/notices/200810/fea-gallian.pdf

Bahar

Adiguzel

(2016). Analysis of factors influencing interest in stem career: Comparison between high ability and motivated American and Turkish high school students. Journal of STEM Education, 17(3), 64-69.

Bahar

Maker

C. J.

(2011). Exploring the relationship between mathematical creativity and mathematical achievement. Asia-Pacific Journal of Gifted and Talented Education, 3(1), 33-48. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271699531_Exploring_the_Relationship_between_Mathematical_Creativity_and_Mathematical_Achievement

Bahar

Maker

C. J.

(2015). Cognitive backgrounds of problem solving: A comparison of open-ended vs. closed mathematics problems. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 11(6), 1531-1546. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1410a

Bahar

A. K.

Maker

C. J.

(2020). Culturally responsive assessments of mathematical skills and abilities: Development, field testing, and implementation. Journal of Advanced Academics, 31(3), 211-233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X20906130

Bandura

(1994). Self-efficacy. In Ramachaudran

V. S.

(Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. Academic Press, 1998).

Benbow

C. P.

(1988). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11(2), 169-232. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00049244

Benbow

C. P.

Stanley

J. C.

(1980). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Facts or Artifact? Science, 210(12), 1262-1264. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.7434028

Benbow

C. P.

Stanley

J. C.

(1983). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts. Science, 222(4627), 1029-1031. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6648516

10.

Buser

Niederle

Oosterbeek

(2014). Gender, competitiveness and career choices. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129(3), 1409-1447. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qju009

11.

Campbell

J. R.

(1996). Early identification of mathematics talent has long-term positive consequences for career contributions. International Journal of Educational Research, 25(6), 495-534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(97)86728-6

12.

Campbell

J. R.

(2002, August). Academic competitions: One of the secrets of America’s success at developing exceptional talent [Paper presentation]. International Conference on Education for the Gifted in Science, Busan, Korea.

13.

Campbell

J. R.

Walberg

H. J.

(2011). Olympiad studies: Competitions provide alternatives to developing talents that serve national interests. Roeper Review, 33(1), 8-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2011.530202

14.

Ceci

S. J.

Donna

K. G.

Shulamit

Wendy

M. W.

(2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15(3), 75-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236

15.

Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(2007). Are we moving closer and closer apart? Shared evidence leads to conflicting views. In Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science: Top researchers debate the evidence. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11546-004

16.

Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(2010). The mathematics of sex: How biology and society conspire to limit talented women and girls. Oxford University Press.

17.

College Board. (2009). AP Data: AP Report to the Nation 2009. https://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/data/nation/2009

18.

College Board. (2019a). AP Program Participation and Performance Data 2019. https://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/data/participation/ap-2019

19.

College Board. (2019b). SAT Suite of Assessments Annual Report. https://reports.collegeboard.org/pdf/2019-total-group-sat-suite-assessments-annual-report.pdf

20.

Comeig

Grau-Grau

Jaramillo-Gutiérrez

Ramírez

(2016). Gender, self-confidence, sports, and preferences for competition. Journal of Business Research, 69(4), 1418-1422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.118

21.

Datta Gupta

Poulsen

Villeval

M. C.

(2013). Gender matching and competitiveness: Experimental evidence. Economic Inquiry, 51(1), 816-835.

22.

Desjarlais

M. A.

(2009). Gender differences on the American mathematics competition AMC 8 contest [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cehsdiss/39

23.

Dreber

von Essen

Ranehill

(2014). Gender and competition in adolescence: Task matters. Experimental Economics, 17(1), 154-172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-013-9361-0

24.

Dweck

C. S.

(1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040-1048. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.

25.

Dweck

C. S.

(2007). Is math a gift? Beliefs that put females at risk. In Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science: Top researchers debate the evidence (pp. 47-55). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11546-004

26.

Eccles

J. S.

Roeser

Vida

Fredricks

Wigfield

(2006). Motivational and achievement pathways through middle childhood. In Balter

Tamis-LeMonda

C. S.

(Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 325-355). Psychology Press.

27.

Ellison

Swanson

(2010). The gender gap in secondary school mathematics at high achievement levels: Evidence from the American mathematics competitions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 109-128. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.2.109

28.

Else-Quest

N. M.

Hyde

J. S.

Linn

M. C.

(2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(1), 103-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018053

29.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Statistical analysis of groundwater monitoring data at RCRA facilities: Unified guidance. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. https://www.itrcweb.org/gsmc-1/Content/Resources/Unified_Guidance_2009.pdf

30.

Favara

(2012). The cost of acting “girly”: Gender stereotypes and educational choices (IZA Discussion Paper No. 7037). http://ftp.iza.org/dp7037.pdf

31.

Feingold

(1988). Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist, 43(2), 95-103. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.2.95

32.

Fennema

(1990). Teachers’ beliefs and gender differences in mathematics. In Fennema

Leder

(Eds.), Mathematics and gender: Teacher and student influences. Teachers College Press.

33.

Fennema

Carpenter

T. P.

(1981). Sex-related differences in mathematics: Results from national assessment. The Mathematics Teacher, 74(7), 554-559. https://doi.org/10.2307/27962588

34.

Fennema

Peterson

P. L.

Carpenter

T. P.

(1990). Teachers’ attributions and beliefs about girls, boys, and mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21(1), 55-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00311015

35.

Fennema

Sherman

(1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and affective factors. American Educational Research Journal, 14(1), 51-71. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312014001051

36.

Flory

Leibbrandt

List

(2015). Do competitive workplaces deter female workers? A large-scale natural field experiment on job entry decisions. Review of Economic Studies, 82(1), 122-155. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdu030

37.

Gallagher

A. M.

De Lisi

(1994). Gender differences in Scholastic Aptitude Test: Mathematics problem solving among high-ability students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(2), 204-211. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.204

38.

Gallagher

A. M.

De Lisi

Holst

P. C.

Mcgillicuddy-De Lisi

A. V.

Morely

Cahalan

(2000). Gender diﬀerences in advanced mathematical problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75(3), 165-190. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1999.2532

39.

Gavin

M. K.

(1996). The development of math talent: Influences on students at a women’s college. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 7(4), 476-485. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X9600700406

40.

Gneezy

Niederle

Rustichini

(2003). Performance in competitive environments: Gender differences. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(3), 1049-1074. https://doi.org/10.1162/00335530360698496

41.

Halpern

D. F.

(2007). Science, sex, and good sense: Why women are underrepresented in some areas of science and math. In Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science: Top researchers debate the evidence (pp. 121-130). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11546-010

42.

Halpern

D. F.

(2012). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.). Psychology Press.

43.

Hedges

L. V.

Nowell

(1995). Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. Science, 269(5220), 41-45. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7604277

44.

Hirsch

R. M.

Slack

J. R.

Smith

R. A.

(1982). Techniques of trend analysis for monthly water quality data. Water Resources Research, 18(1), 107-121. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR018i001p00107

45.

Hyde

J. S.

(2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6), 581-592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581

46.

Hyde

J. S.

(2007). Women in Science: Gender similarities in abilities and sociocultural forces. In Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (pp. 131-145). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11546-011

47.

Hyde

J. S.

Fennema

Lamon

S. J.

(1990). Gender difference in mathematical performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 139-155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.139

48.

Hyde

J. S.

Lindberg

S. M.

Linn

M. C.

Ellis

A. B.

Williams

C. C.

(2008). Gender similarities characterize math performance. Science, 321(5888), 494-495. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160364

49.

Hyde

J. S.

Linn

M. C.

(2006). Gender similarities in mathematics and science. Science, 314(5799), 599-600. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132154

50.

Iriberri

Rey-Biel

(2020). Competitive pressure widens the gender gap in performance: Evidence from a two-stage competition in mathematics. Economics Journal, 129(620), 1863-1893. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12617

51.

Kendall

M. G.

(1975). Rank correlation methods (4th ed.). Charles Griffin.

52.

Lazear

E. P.

Rosen

(1990). Male-female wage differentials in job ladders. Journal of Labor Economics, 8(1), 106-123. https://doi.org/10.1086/298246

53.

Lindberg

S. M.

Hyde

J. S.

Petersen

J. L.

Linn

M. C.

(2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1123-1135. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021276

54.

Linn

M. C.

(2010). Designing standards for lifelong science learning. Journal of Engineering Education, 99(2), 103-105. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2010.tb01047.x

55.

Lubinski

D. S.

Benbow

C. P.

(2007). Sex differences in personal attributes for the development of scientific expertise. In Ceci

S. J.

Williams

W. M.

(Eds.), Why aren’t more women in science? Top researchers debate the evidence (pp. 79-100). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11546-007

56.

Lubinski

D. S.

Benbow

C. P.

(2021). Intellectual precocity: What have we learned since Terman? Gifted Child Quarterly, 65(1), 3-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986220925447

57.

Maccoby

(1966). The development of sex differences. Stanford University Press.

58.

Maccoby

Jacklin

C. N.

(1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford University Press.

59.

Makel

M. C.

Wai

Peairs

Putallaz

(2016). Sex differences in the right tail of cognitive abilities: An update and cross cultural extension. Intelligence, 59(1), 8-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.09.003

60.

Mann

H. B.

(1945). Non-parametric tests against trend. Econometrica, 13(3), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907187

61.

Mathematical Association of America. (2020). About AMC. https://www.maa.org/math-competitions/about-amc

62.

Mayr

Wozniak

Davidson

Kuhns

Harbaugh

(2012). Competitiveness across the life span: The Feisty Fifties. Psychology and Aging, 27(2), 278-285. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025655

63.

McGraw

Lubienski

S. T.

Strutchens

M. E.

(2006). A closer look at gender in NAEP mathematics achievement and affect data: Intersections with achievement, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 37(2), 129-150. https://doi.org/10.2307/30034845

64.

National Science Board. (2018). Science and Engineering Indicators 2018 (NSB-2018-1). https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/assets/nsb20181.pdf

65.

Niederle

Vesterlund

(2007). Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), 1067-1101, https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067

66.

Niederle

Vesterlund

(2008). Gender differences in competition. Negotiation Journal, 24(4), 447-463. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1571-9979.2008.00197.x

67.

Niederle

Vesterlund

(2010). Explaining the gender gap in math test scores: The role of competition. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 129-144. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.24.2.129

68.

OECD. (2011). Education at a glance 2011: OECD Indicators. http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-en

69.

Olszewski-Kubilius

Lee

S. Y.

(2011). Gender and other group differences in performance on off-level tests: Changes in the 21st century. Gifted Child Quarterly, 55(1), 54-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986210382574

70.

Reis

S. M.

Callahan

C. M.

(1989). Gifted females: They’ve come a long way—or have they? Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 12(2), 99-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235328901200203

71.

Reis

S. M.

Park

(2001). Gender differences in High-Achieving students in math and science. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 25(1), 52-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320102500104

72.

Roberts

B. W.

Walton

K. E.

Viechtbauer

(2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta- analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132(2), 3-27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1

73.

Robinson

J. P.

Lubienski

S. T.

(2011). The development of gender achievement gaps in mathematics and reading during elementary and middle school: Examining direct cognitive assessments and teacher ratings. American Educational Research Journal, 48(2), 268-302. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210372249

74.

Sen

P. K.

(1968). Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s tau. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63(324), 1379-1389. https://doi.org/10.2307/2285891

75.

Shaw

E. J.

Marini

J. P.

Mattern

K. D.

(2013). Exploring the utility of Advanced Placement participation and performance in college admission decisions. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 73(2), 229-253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164412454291

76.

Sherman

(1980). Mathematics, spatial visualization, and related factors: Changes in girls and boys, Grades 8–11. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(4), 476-482. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.72.4.476

77.

Sidanius

Pratto

(1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139175043

78.

Stanley

J. C.

(1994). Gender differences for able elementary school students on above-grade-level achievement tests. In Colangelo

Assouline

S. G.

Ambroson

D. L.

(Eds.), Talent development (Vol. 2, pp. 141-148). Ohio Psychology Press.

79.

Stumpf

Stanley

J. C.

(1996). Gender-related differences on the College Board’s Advanced Placement and Achievement tests, 1982–1992. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(2), 353-364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.353

80.

Swiatek

M. A.

Lupkowski-Shoplik

(2000). Gender differences in academic attitudes among gifted elementary school students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 23(4), 360-377. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320002300403

81.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). Table 203.50: Enrollment and percentage distribution of enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools, by race/ethnicity and region: Selected years, fall 1995 through fall 2027. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_203.50.asp?referer=raceindicators

82.

Wai

Cacchio

Putallaz

Makel

M. C.

(2010). Sex differences in the right tail of cognitive abilities: A 30-year examination. Intelligence, 38(4), 412-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.006

83.

Wai

Hodges

Makel

M. C.

(2018). Sex differences in ability tilt in the right tail of cognitive abilities: A 35-year examination. Intelligence, 67(March-April), 76-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.02.003

84.

Wai

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

(2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817-835. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016127

85.

Wai

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

Steiger

J. H.

(2010). Accomplishment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and its relation to STEM educational dose: A 25-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 860-871. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019454

86.

Wai

Putallaz

Makel

M. C.

(2012). Studying intellectual outliers: Are there sex differences, and are the smart getting smarter? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(6), 382-390. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412455052

87.

Webb

R. M.

Lubinski

Benbow

C. P.

(2007). Spatial ability: A neglected dimension in talent searches for intellectually precocious youth. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 397-420. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.397

88.

Wise

L. L.

McLaughlin

D. H.

Steel

(1979). The Project TALENT data bank. American Institutes for Research.

89.

Wozniak

Harbaugh

Mayr

(2010). Choices about competition: Differences by gender and hormonal fluctuations, and the role of relative performance feedback (MPRA Paper No. 31374). https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/31374/2/MPRA_paper_31374.pdf

90.

W. T.

(1996). Growing up in Taiwan: The impact of environmental influences on the Math Olympians. International Journal of Educational Research, 25(6), 479-484. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(97)86729-8

91.

Xie

Shauman

K. A.

(2003). Women in science: Career processes and outcomes. Harvard University Press.

92.

P. S.

Yang

T. C.

Chou

C. C.

(2002). Effects of climate change on evapotranspiration from paddy fields in southern Taiwan. Climate Change, 54(2), 165-179. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015764831165