The Middle Classes,Ideological Intention and Resurrection of a Progressive Newspaper

Abstract

Economic success as a large national daily newspaper and a progressive editorial policy are normally incompatible in the highly commercialized media sector of contemporary capitalist societies. Despite this, a South Korean newspaper, Hankyoreh Shinmun, pursued these two goals simultaneously, relying on public support and employment of the same financial resources as those of the commercial papers (i.e. advertising revenue and subscription fees). This project was based on an unusual social situation in which a significant number of the middle classes hold progressive views. The prime purpose of this thesis is to examine the reconciliation of these two goals. The findings indicate that it is possible for the progressive media to launch and continue within a highly industrialized media sector according to certain political characteristics of the middle classes in particular societies. The united economic capability of the progressive middle classes makes it possible to raise the high launch costs; their readership makes it possible to secure the core resources from the advertising revenue; their continuous contributions help fund operating costs after its foundation. The conclusion we arrived at is that the strength of economic barriers against the progressive media vary according to certain sociopolitical features of particular societies and the different political attitudes of the social classes. The economic determination is decisive but not absolute. The article also considers the decision-making process of dispersed ownership. The results show that the combination of the large number of shareholders required to launch a large independent paper, and the egoism of the founding leaders which occurred in a power vacuum situation, resulted in the domination of the paper by a small number of executives. This situation led to a split between the company and the public owners, and weakened the financial and political strength of the paper. This fact demands a redefinition of the issue of independence from ownership and control. It should be extensively defined as the monopolistic operation of the media sector by any small number of executive forces (media capital, state or executive sector). The purpose of independence also must be redefined as `deconcentrated and publicly regulated privately owned media' rather than just freedom of the media or freedom of the journalists from media capital and the state.

Keywords

economic barriers middle classes political economy progressive paper South Korea

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Advertising Design (1988-1991) Seoul: Otto Ltd.

Ahamad, A. (1985) `Class, Nation, and State: Intermediate Classes in Peripheral Societies', pp. 43-64 in D.L. Johnson (ed.) Middle Classes in Dependent Countries. London: Sage.

Auditing Report (1988-1994) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

Carchedi, G. (1977) On the Economic Identification of Social Class. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Cho, J.K. (1988) A Thesis of the National Independent Movement I (in Korean). Seoul: Beaksan-Seodang.

Choi, H.Y. (1990) `The History of South Korean Social Movement', pp. 86-105 in J.K. Kim and H.Y. Choi (eds) South Korean Society (in Korean). Seoul: Han-Wool.

Christian Institute for Social Research (1987, 1988) South Korean Political Situation. Seoul: Minjung-Sa.

Curran, J. (1987) `Capitalism and Control of the Press, 1880-1975', in J. Curran et al. (eds) Mass Communication and Society. London: Edward Arnold.

Downing, J. (1984) Radical Media - The Political Experience of Alternative Communication. London: South End Press.

10.

Downing, J. (1995) `Alternative Media and the Boston Tea Party', in J. Downing, Mohammadi and Sreberny-Mohammadi (eds) Questioning the Media. London: Sage.

11.

Ewen, S. (1989) `Advertising and the Development of Consumer Culture', in I. Angus and S. Jhally (eds) Cultural Politics in Contemporary America. New York: Routledge.

12.

Garnham, N. (1987) `Contribution to a Political Economy of Mass Communication', in R. Collins et al. (eds) Media Culture and Society. London: Sage.

13.

Garnham, N. (1990) Capitalism and Communication. Global Culture and the Economics of Information. London: Sage.

14.

Golding, P. and G. Murdock (1979) `Ideology and the Mass Media: The Question of Determination', pp. 198-224 in M. Barrett et al. (eds) Ideology and Cultural Production. New York: St Martin's Press.

15.

Han, D.S. (1996) `Challenging Economic Barriers - A Case Study of a South Korean Newspaper', unpublished PhD thesis, University of Westminster.

16.

Han, S.J. (1986) `Are the Korean Middle Classes Conservative?', Sasangkwa Chungchaek (in Korean) 3(Summer): 115-136.

17.

Han, S.J. (1987) `The Role of the Middle Class in the Period of Democratisation', Shin Dong-A (in Korean) August: 115-131.

18.

Han, S.J. (1991) `Theory of Social Formation and Research of Social Classes', pp. 96-117 in Research Institute of Social Science at Seoul National University (eds) Social Strata (in Korean). Seoul: Dasan.

19.

Han, W.S. (1987) The South Korean Middle Class: South Korean Society in Transition - Research Data Book II (in Korean). Seoul: Seoul National University and the Han-Kuk Ilbo.

20.

Herman, E. (1995) `Media in the US Political Economy', pp. 77-93 in J. Downing, Mohammadi and Sreberny-Mohammadi (eds) Questioning the Media. London: Sage.

21.

Jeong, Y.W. (1990) `Social Characteristics of South Korean Press in the 1980s', pp. 113-156 in W.S. Kim , D.U. Im et al. (eds) Political Economy of the South Korean Press (in Korean). Seoul: A-Chim.

22.

Jhally, S. (1989) `The Political Economy of Culture', pp. 5-81 in I. Angus and S. Jhally (eds) Cultural Politics in Contemporary America. New York: Routledge.

23.

Johnson, D.L. (1985) `Class and Social Development: Toward a Comparative and Historical Social Science', pp. 13-41 in D.L. Johnson (ed.) Middle Classes in Dependent Countries. London: Sage.

24.

Journalist Bulletin (1990) (Korea Journalist Association).

25.

Jung, Y.J. (1990) `National-Democratic Press Movement', pp. 291-334 in W.S. Kim , D.U. Im et al. (eds) Political Economy of the South Korean Press (in Korean). Seoul: A-Chim.

26.

Jung, Y.J. (1993) `A Contribution to the Development of Hankyoreh Shinmun', paper presented at a symposium of the Hankyoreh Shinmun National Shareholders' Group (in Korean).

27.

Keane, J. (1991) The Media and Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press.

28.

Kim, S.S. (1990) `A Methodological Basis of Communication Studies', pp. 21-68 in W.S. Kim , D.U. Im et al. (eds) Political Economy of the South Korean Press (in Korean). Seoul: A-Chim.

29.

Koo, H. (1991a) `Theoretical and Methodological Problems of Studies of the Korean Middle Class', pp. 143-153 in Institute of Social Science at Seoul National University (eds) Social Strata (in Korean). Seoul: Dasan.

30.

Koo, H. (1991b) `Middle Classes, Democratisation, and Class Formation', Theory and Society 20: 479-509.

31.

Lee, H.S. (1989) Political Press (in Korean). Seoul: Theory and Practice.

32.

List of Founding Shareholders (1988) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

33.

Masscom Newspaper (1991) `Monthly Readership Survey Result', 2 March.

34.

Mid-Term Auditing Report (1990, 1991) Dong-Rim Auditing Corporation, Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

35.

Monthly Survey on the Readership Formation of the National Dailies (1988-1991) Seoul: Lee's PR Ltd.

36.

Newspaper and Broadcasting Yearbook (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993) Seoul: Korea Institute of Press Research.

37.

Sales Report (1988-1994) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

38.

Seo, K.M. (1990) `Class Structure of South Korean Society', pp. 117-140 in J.K. Kim and H.Y. Choi (eds) South Korean Society (in Korean). Seoul: Han-Wool.

39.

South Korean Political Situation (1988, 1989) Christian Institute for Social Research. Seoul: Minjung-Sa.

40.

Sparks, C. (1993) `Goodby, Hildy Johnson; The Vanishing “Serious Press” ', pp. 58-74 in R. Dahlgren and C. Sparks (eds) Communication and Citizenship. London: Routledge.

41.

Stephens, J. (1979) `Class Formation and Class Consciousness: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Reference to Britain and Sweden', British Journal of Sociology 30: 38-58.

42.

The Foundation Announcement (1988) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

43.

The List of Founding Shareholders (1988) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

44.

The Platform of Ethics (1988) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

45.

The Promotion Statement for Foundation (1987) Seoul: Hankyoreh Shinmun Ltd.

46.

Wright, E.O. (1978) Class, Crisis and the State. London: Verso.

47.

Yoo, H.J. (1988) `A Study on the Social Consciousness of the Middle Class in Korea' (in Korean), unpublished PhD thesis, Ewha Women's University.