The purpose of the study was to determine whether the technique of task variation (with maintenance tasks interspersed) (TV) is more effective in the acquisition of gross motor skills for students with autism than a constant task (CT) condition in a physical education setting. Subjects were 12 male students with autism, ages 11 to 15 years. The study included pretest-posttest administration of the I CAN assessment of Gross Motor Skills to assess skills such as overhand throw, kick, and vertical jump. After a 6-week treatment period, the TV condition was significantly more effective than the CT condition, at the .05 level.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AmmonsR. B. (1947). Acquisition of motor skill: II. Rotary pursuit performance with continuous practice before and after a single rest. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37, 393–410.
2.
AmmonsR. B. (1950). Acquisition of motor skill: III. Effects of initially distributed practice on rotary pursuit performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 777–787.
3.
ArnheimD. D.AuxterD., & CroweW. C. (1969). Principles and methods of adapted physical education. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
4.
BaumeisterA. A., & BerryM. (1967). Distribution of practice and specificity of learning in normal and retardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 72, 227–231.
5.
BerlyneD. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6.
BrighamT. A., & ShermanJ. A. (1968). An experimental analysis of verbal imitation in preschool children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 151–158.
7.
CaplanC. S. (1969). The influence of physical fatigue on massed versus distributed motor learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.
8.
CarronA. V. (1969). Performance and learning of a discrete motor task under massed versus distributed practice. Research Quarterly, 40, 481–489.
9.
ColemanM. (1976). The autistic syndrome. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
10.
CuvoA. J.KlevansL.BorakoveS.BorakoveL. S.Van LanduytJ., & LutzkerJ. R. (1980). A comparison of three strategies for teaching object names. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 249–258.
11.
DentH., & JohnsonR. (1964). The effects of massed versus distributed practice on the learning of organic familial defectives. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 68, 533–536.
12.
DigmanJ. M. (1959). Growth of a motor skill as a function of distribution of practice. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 310–316.
13.
DrewC. J. (1980). Introduction to designing and conducting research. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
14.
DrowatzyJ. (1970). Effects of massed and distributed practice schedules upon the acquisition of pursuit rotor tracking by normal and mentally retarded subjects. Research Quarterly, 41, 32–38.
15.
DunlapG. (1984). The influence of task variation and maintenance task variation and maintenance tasks on the learning and affect of autistic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 37, 41–64.
16.
DunlapG., & KoegelR. L. (1980a). Motivating autistic children through stimulus variation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 619–628.
17.
DunlapG., & KoegelR. L. (1980b). Programming the delivery of instructions for autistic children. In WilcoxB. & ThompsonA. (Eds.), Critical issues in educating autistic children and youth. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education.
18.
FaitH. F. (1960). Adapted physical education. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
19.
FrenchR. W., & JansmaP. (1982). Special physical education. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
20.
GagneR. M. (1973). The domains of learning. Interchange, 3, 1–8.
21.
GrawH. M. (1968). The most efficient usage of a fixed work plus rest practice period in motor learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
22.
HarmonJ. M., & OxendineJ. B. (1961). Effect of different lengths of practice periods on the learning of motor skill. Research Quarterly, 32, 34–41.
23.
HersenM., & BarlowD. H. (1976). Single case experimental design: Strategies for studying behavior change. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
24.
KazdinA. E., & HartmannD. P. (1978). The simultaneous treatment design. Behavior Therapy, 9, 912–922.
25.
KoegelR. L. & EgelA. L. (1979). Motivating autistic children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 418–426.
26.
KoegelR. L.RussoD. C., & RincoverA. (1977). Assessing and training teachers in the generalized use of behavior modification with autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 197–205.
27.
KoonceJ. M.ChamblissD. J., & IrionA. (1964). Long-term reminiscence in the pursuit rotor habit. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 498–500.
28.
LovassO. I.BerberichJ. P.PerloffB. F., & SchaefferB. (1966). Acquisition of imitative speech by schizophrenic children. Science, 151, 705–707.
29.
MadsenM. C. (1963). Distribution of practice and level of intelligence. Psychological Reports, 13, 39–42.
30.
MulliganM.GuessD.HolvoetJ., & BrownF. (1980). The individualized curriculum sequencing model (I): Implication from research on massed, distributed or spaced trial training. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 5, 325–336.
31.
NeefN. A.IwataB. A., & PageT. J. (1980). The effects of interspersal training versus high density reinforcement of spelling acquisition and retention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 153–158.
32.
PanyanM. C., & HallR. B. (1978). Effects of serial versus concurrent task sequencing of acquisition, maintenance and generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 67.
33.
PetersonR. F. (1968). Some experiments on the organization of a class of imitative behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 225–235.
34.
RimlandB. (1964). Infantile autism. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
35.
RitvoE. R., & FreemanB. J. (1978). National Society for Autistic Children definition of the syndrome of autism. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 8, 162–167.
36.
SchroederG. L., & BaerD. M. (1972). Effects of concurrent and serial learning on generalized vocal imitation in retarded children. Developmental Psychology, 6, 293–301.
37.
SherrillC. (1986). Adapted physical education and recreation: A multidisciplinary approach. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
38.
SingerR. N. (1975). Motor learning and human performance (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
39.
StelmachG. E. (1969). Efficiency of motor learning as a function of intertrial rest. Research Quarterly, 40, 198–202.
40.
ThorpeJ. A. (1986). Methods of Research in Physical Education. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
41.
WeberR. C., & ThorpeJ. A. (1989). Comparison of task variation and constant task methods for severely disabled in physical education. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 6 (4), 338–353.
42.
WesselJ. A. (1976). I CAN Program. Northbrook, IL: Hubbard.
43.
WhitleyJ. D. (1970). Effects of practice distribution on learning a fine motor task. Research Quarterly, 41, 231.
44.
WinterlingV.DunlapG., & O'NeillR. (1987). The influence of task variation on the aberrant behaviors of autistic students. Education and Treatment of Children, 10, 105–119.
45.
YoungO. G. (1954). Rate of learning in relation to spacing of practice periods in archery and badminton. Research Quarterly, 25, 231.
