This article reviews definitional, parametric, and procedural issues which must be considered to optimize the effectiveness of timeout, an intervention frequently used with exceptional students. The conceptual basis of timeout is explained as a meaningful discrepancy between the timein and timeout environments, and five general types of timeout are delineated: (a) isolation timeout, (b) exclusion timeout, (c) contingent observation, (d) removal of reinforcing stimulus conditions, and (e) ignoring the student. The results of parametric and comparative investigations involving these five types of timeout are reviewed. However, a comprehensive knowledge base concerning timeout has yet to be established. Thus, directions for future research and the need for systematic studies are noted. Procedural considerations, including preconditions, contextual variables, concurrent interventions, and evaluation of timeout, are then discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BartonL. E., BrulleA. R., & ReppA. C. (1983). Aversive techniques and the doctrine of least restrictive alternative. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 3, 1–7.
2.
BartonE. S., GuessD., GarciaE., & BaerD. (1970). Improvement of retardates’ mealtime behaviors by timeout procedures using multiple baseline techniques. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 77–84.
3.
BrantnerJ. P., & DohertyM. A. (1983). A review of timeout: A conceptual and methodological analysis. In AxelrodS. & ApscheJ. (Eds.), The Effects of Punishment on Human Behavior (pp. 87–132). New York: Academic Press.
4.
ClarkH. B., RowburyT., BaerA. M., & BaerD. M. (1973). Timeout as a punishing stimulus in continuous and intermittent schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 443–455.
5.
CueninL. H., & HarrisK. R. (in press). Planning, implementing, and evaluating timeout interventions with exceptional students. TEACHING Exceptional Children.
6.
DrabmanR. S., & SpitalnikR. (1973). Social isolation as a punishment procedure: A controlled study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 16, 236–249.
7.
FordJ. E., & FordA. V. (1980). Effects of timeout from auditory reinforcement on two problem behaviors. Mental Retardation, 18, 299–303.
8.
FoxxR. M., & ShapiroS. T. (1978). The timeout ribbon: A nonexclusionary timeout procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 125–136.
9.
GastD. L., & NelsonC. M. (1977). Legal and ethical considerations for the use of timeout in special education settings. Journal of Special Education, 11, 457–467.
10.
GreshamF. M. (1979). Comparison of response cost and timeout in a special education setting. Journal of Special Education, 13, 199–208.
11.
HarrisK. R. (1982). Cognitive-behavior modification: Application with exceptional students. Focus on Exceptional Children, 15, 1–16.
12.
HarrisS. L., & Ersner-HershfieldR. (1978). Behavioral suppression of seriously disruptive behaviors in psychotic and retarded patients: A review of punishment and its alternatives. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1352–1375.
13.
HobbsS. A., & ForehandR. (1977). Important parameters in the use of timeout with children: A re-examination. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 8, 365–370.
14.
JohnstonJ. R. (1972). Punishment of human behavior. American Psychologist, 27, 1033–1054.
15.
KazdinA. E. (1980). Acceptability of alternative treatments for deviant child behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 259–273.
16.
KazdinA. E. (1981). Acceptability of child treatment techniques: The influence of treatment efficiency and adverse side effects. Behavior Therapy, 12, 493–506.
17.
KendallP. C., NayW. R., & JeffersJ. (1975). Time out duration and contrast effects: A systematic evaluation of a successive treatments design. Behavior Therapy, 6, 609–615.
18.
MacDonoughT. S., & ForehandR. (1973). Response-contingent time out: Important parameters in behavior modification with children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 4, 231–236.
19.
MartinG. (1975). Brief time outs as consequences for errors during training programs with autistic and retarded children: A questionable procedure. Psychological Record, 25, 71–87.
20.
NelsonD. M., & RutherfordR. B. (1983). Timeout revisited: Guidelines for its use in special education. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 3, 56–67.
21.
O'BrienF., BugleC., & AzrinN. H. (1972). Training and maintaining a retarded child's proper eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 67–72.
22.
PlummerS., BaerD. M., & LeBlancJ. J. (1977). Functional considerations in the use of procedural time-out and an effective alternative. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 689–705.
23.
PorterfieldJ. K., Herbert-JacksonE., & RisleyT. R. (1976). Contingent observation: An effective and acceptable procedure for reducing disruptive behavior of young children in a group setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 55–64.
24.
SmithD. E. (1981). Is isolation room time-out a punisher?Behavioral Disorders, 6, 247–256.
25.
SolnickJ. V., RincoverA., & PetersonC. R. (1977). Determinants of the reinforcing and punishing effects of time-out. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 415–428.
26.
WalkerH. M. (1983). Applications of response cost in school settings: Outcomes, issues and recommendations. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 3, 47–55.
27.
WhiteG. D., NielsonG., & JohnsonS. M. (1972). Timeout duration and the suppression of deviant behavior in children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 114–120.
28.
WilsonC. C., RobertsonS. S., HerlongL. H., & HaynesS. N. (1979). Vicarious effects of time-out in the modification of aggression in the classroom. Behavior Modification, 3, 97–111.
29.
ZimmermanJ., & BaydanN. T. (1963). Punishment of SΔ responding of humans in conditional matching to sample by time-out. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 589–597.
30.
ZimmermanJ., & FersterC. B. (1963). Intermittent punishment of SΔ responding in matching to sample. Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 349–356.
31.
ZimmermanJ., & FersterC. B. (1964). Some notes on time out from reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7, 13–19.
