One possible reason for the failure to demonstrate the efficacy of self contained classes for the EMR lies in the failure of such classes to balance the emphasis on motivational and cognitive variables. Several motivational variables have been isolated experimentally and the research findings have been interpreted to suggest that children who have experienced excessive amounts of failure dramatically differ from children with little history of failure on these variables. Three specific motivational variables are discussed and the related research evidence presented. The variables are (a) expectancy for failure, (b) outer-directedness, and (c) positive and negative reaction tendencies. Implications are drawn and suggestions made regarding ways of dealing with these behaviors.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AchenbachT., & ZiglerE.Cue-learning and problem-learning strategies in normal and retarded children. Child Development, 1968, 39, 827– 848.
BereiterC. E.An academically oriented preschool for culturally deprived children. In HechingerF. (Ed.), Preschool education today. New York: Doubleday, 1966.
4.
BialerI., & CromwellR.Task repetition in mental defectives as a function of chronological age and mental age. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1960, 65, 265– 268.
ButterfieldE. C.The interruption of tasks: Methodological, factual, and theoretical issues. Psychological Bulletin, 1964, 62, 309– 322.
7.
CarlsonJ. C., & MacMillanD. L.Comparison of probability judgments between EMR and non-retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 697– 700.
8.
CromwellR.A social learning approach to mental retardation. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
9.
DavisF. R.Demand-degradable teacher standards: Expediency and professional thantos. Mental Retardation, 1970, 8, 37– 40.
10.
DeutschM.The disadvantaged child and the learning process. In PassowA. H. (Ed.), Education in depressed areas. New York: Columbia University Teachers College, 1963.
11.
DunnL.Special education for the mildly retarded—Is much of it justifiable?Exceptional Children, 1968, 35, 5– 22.
12.
GrayS. W., & KlausR. A.An experimental preschool program for culturally deprived children. Child Development, 1965, 36, 887– 898.
13.
GreenC., & ZiglerE.Social deprivation and the performance of retarded and normal children on a satiation task. Child Development, 1962, 33, 499– 508.
14.
HarterS.Mental age, IQ and motivational factors in the discrimination learning set performance of normal and retarded children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1967, 5, 123– 141.
15.
HewettF. M.The emotionally disturbed child in the classroom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1968.
16.
HuntJ. McV. Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
17.
KouninJ. S.Experimental studies of rigidity: I. The measurement of rigidity in normal and feebleminded persons. Character and Personality, 1941, 9, 251– 273.
18.
MacMillanD. L.An examination of developmental assumptions underlying special classes for educable retardates. California Journal for Instructional Improvement, 1969, 12, 165– 173. (a)
19.
MacMillanD. L.Resumption of interrupted tasks by normal and educable mentally retarded subjects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 657– 661. (b)
20.
MacMillanD. L.Motivational differences: Cultural-familial retardates vs. normals on expectancy for failure. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 74, 254– 258. (c)
21.
MacMillanD. L.Reactions following interpolated failure by normal and retarded subjects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1970, 74, 689– 691.
22.
MacMillanD. L., & KeoghB. K.Normal and retarded children's expectancy for failure. Developmental Psychology, in press.
23.
MaslowA.Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1954.
24.
MossJ. W.Failure-avoiding and success-striving behavior in mentally retarded and normal children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College, 1958.
25.
OslerS. Unpublished manuscript; personal communication, April, 1970.
26.
TerrellG.Jr., DurkinK., & WiesleyM.Social class and the nature of the incentive in discrimination learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1959, 59, 270– 272.
27.
TurnureJ., & ZiglerE.Outer-directedness in the problem solving of normal and retarded children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 69, 427– 436.
28.
ZeamanD., & HouseB. J.The role of attention in retardate discrimination learning. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Pp. 159– 223.
29.
ZiglerE.Developmental versus difference theories of mental retardation and the problem of motivation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 536– 556.
ZiglerE.Research on personality structure in the retardate. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Vol. I. New York: Academic Press, 1966.
32.
ZiglerE.Rigidity in the feebleminded. In TrappE. P. and HimelsteinP. (Eds.), Readings on the exceptional child. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962.
33.
ZiglerE.Training the intellect versus development of the child. Paper read at the annual convention of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, 1968.
34.
ZiglerE., & ButterfieldE. C.Motivational aspects of changes in IQ test performance of culturally deprived nursery school children. Child Development, 1968, 39, 1– 14.
35.
ZiglerE., HodgdenL., & StevensonH. W.The effect of support on the performance of normal and feebleminded children. Journal of Personality, 1958, 26, 106– 122.
