A simple model was tested in which attitudinal factors and external conditions act in combination to influence behavior. The model predicts that behavior is a monotonic function of attitudes and external conditions and that the strength of the attitude-behavior relationship is a curvilinear function of the strength of the external conditions, with extreme values setting boundary conditions on the applicability of attitude models. The model also allows for interactions in which perceived costs enter into the attitudinal process. Evidence is taken from a natural experiment in recycling in which collection bins for curbside pickup had been provided to 26% of 257 survey respondents. Consistent with the model, main effects of attitudes and external conditions were found, as was an interaction effect in which the Schwartz norm-activation model predicted recycling behavior only for households without bins. Interactive models such as the one developed here can yield better policy-relevant analyses by clarifying the relationships between external and internal influences on behavior change.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 172-211.
2.
Arbuthnot, J. , Tedeschi, R., Waymer, M., Tumer, J., Kressel, S., & Rush, R. (1977) The induction of sustained recycling behavior through the foot in the door technique. Journal of Environmental Systems, 6, 354-367.
3.
Bagozzi, R. P. (1992). The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions and behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 178-204.
4.
Bagozzi, R. P. , Baumgartner, H., & Yi, Y. (1992). State versus action orientation and the theory of reasoned action: An application to coupon usage. Joumal of Consumer Research, 18, 505-518.
5.
Bagozzi, R. P. , & Warshaw, P. R. (1990). Trying to consume. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 127-140.
6.
Belseley, D. A. , Kuh, K., & Welsch, R. E. (1980). Regression diagnostics. New York: Wiley.
7.
Black, J. S. , & Heberlein, T. A. (1976, August). Emergent norms and environmental action: Reciprocal causation of personal and perceived social norns in the purchase of lead-free gasoline. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, New York.
8.
Black, J. S. , Stern, P. C., & Elworth, J. T. (1985). Personal and contextual influences on household energy adaptations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 3-21.
9.
Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.
10.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.
11.
Derksen, L. , & Gartrell, J. (1993). The social context of recycling. American Sociological Review, 58, 434-442.
12.
De Young, R. (1984). Motivating people to recycle: The use of incentives. Resource Recycling, 42, 14-42.
13.
De Young, R. (1985-1986). Encouraging environmentally appropriate behavior. Journal of Environmental Systems, 15, 281-292.
14.
De Young, R. (1986). Some psychological aspects of recycling. Environment and Behavior, 18, 435-449.
15.
De Young, R. (1990). Recycling as appropriate behavior: A review of survey data from selected recycling education programs in Michigan. Resources, Conservation, and Recycling, 3, 1-13.
16.
Dietz, T. , Frey, R. S., & Kalof, L. (1987). Estimation with cross-national data: Robust and nonparametric methods. American Sociological Review, 52, 380-390.
17.
Dietz, T. , Kalof, L., & Frey, R. S. (1991). On the utility of robust and resampling procedures. Rural Sociology, 56, 461-474.
18.
Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 75-109.
19.
Fazio, R. H. , Zanna, M. P., & Cooper, J. (1977). Dissonance and self-perception: An integrative view of each theory's proper domain of application. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 464-479.
20.
Fishbein, M. (1979). A theory of reasoned action: Some applications and implications. In H. E. Howe, Jr. (Ed). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 65-116). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
21.
Gardner, G. T. , & Stern, P. C. (in press). Environmental problems and human behavior. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
22.
Geller, E. S. , Winett, R. A., & Everett, P. B. (1982). Preserving the environment: New strategies for behavior change. New York: Pergamon.
23.
Gitlitz, J. S. (1989) Curbside collection containers: A comparative evaluation. Resource Recycling, 70, 20-51.
24.
Hopper, J. R. , & Nielsen, J. M. (1991). Recycling as altruistic behavior: Normative and behavioral strategies to explain participation in a community recycling program. Environment and Behavior, 23, 195-220.
25.
Humphrey, C. R. , Bord, R. J., Hammond, M. M., & Mann, S. H. (1977). Attitudes and conditions for cooperation in a paper recycling program. Environment and Behavior, 9, 107-124.
26.
Ingram, R. E. , & Geller, E. S. (1975). A community integrated, behavior modification approach to facilitating paper recycling. JSAS Catalog Selected Documents in Psychology, 5, 327.
27.
Jacobs, H. E. , & Bailey, J. S. (1982-1983) Evaluating participation in a residential recycling program. Journal of Environmental Systems, 12, 141-152.
28.
Katzev, R. D. (1989, February). How to motivate recycling: Applying minimal justification techniques. Paper presented at the Association for Conservation Information Winter Workshop, Arlington, VA.
29.
Katzev, R. D. , & Pardini, A. U. (1987-1988). The comparative effectiveness of reward and commitment approaches in motivating community recycling. Journal of Environmental Systems, 17, 93-113.
30.
Olson, J. M. , & Zanna, M. P. (1993). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 117-154.
31.
Pardini, A. U. , & Katzev, R. D. (1983-1984). The effect of strength of commitment on newspaper recycling. Journal of Environmental Systems, 13, 245-254.
32.
Reid, D. H. , Luyben, P. D., Rawers, R. J., & Bailey, J. S. (1976). Newspaper recycling: The effects of prompting and proximity of containers. Environment and Behavior, 12, 157-166.
33.
Salmon, C. T. , & Nichols, J. S. (1983). The next birthday method of respondent selection. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47, 270-276.
34.
Schwartz, S. H. (1968a). Awareness of consequences and the influence of moral norms on interpersonal behavior. Sociometry, 31, 355-369.
35.
Schwartz, S. H. (1968b). Words, deeds and the perception of consequences and responsibility in action situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 232-242.
36.
Schwartz, S. H. (1970). Elicitation of moral obligation and self-sacrificing behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 283-293.
37.
Schwartz, S. H. (1977). Normative influences on altruism. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221-279). New York: Academic Press.
38.
Stern, P. C. , Black, J. S., & Elworth, J. T. (1983). Adaptations to changing energy conditions among Massachusetts households. Energy, 8, 515-523.
39.
Stern, P. C. , Dietz, T., & Black, J. S. (1986). Support for environmental protection: The role of moral norms. Population and Environment, 8, 204-222.
40.
Stern, P. C. , Dietz, T., & Kalof, L. (1993). Value orientations, gender, and environmental concern. Environment and Behavior, 25, 322-348.
41.
Stern, P. C. , & Oskamp, S. (1987). Managing scarce environmental resources. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (pp. 1044-1088). New York: Wiley.
42.
Tyler, T. R. , Rasinski, K. A., & Griffin, E. (1986). Alternative images of the citizen: Implications for public policy. American Psychologist, 41, 970-978.
43.
Van Liere, K. D. , & Dunlap, R. E. (1978). Moral norms and environmental behavior: An application of Schwartz's norm activation model to yard burning. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 174-188.
44.
Witmer, J. F. , & Geller, E. S. (1976). Facilitating paper recycling: Effects of prompts, raffles and contexts. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 9, 315-322.
