Police shootings are a serious form of violence that have profound impacts on social well-being. Although the impacts of socioeconomic, demographic, and regulatory factors on fatal police shootings were well established, the relationship between greenness levels and police shootings remains unclear, especially across varying levels of social deprivation. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a three-step analysis. First, an analysis of 3,108 counties in the contiguous United States revealed a significant negative association between the level of greenness and incidence of fatal police shootings. Second, a focused analysis of 805 metropolitan counties revealed an even stronger association. Third, we found the negative association remains significant across five levels of social deprivation, with a stronger association observed in counties with higher levels of social deprivation. This study is the first to examine relationships between greenness levels and fatal police shootings. These findings may provide initial evidence and a novel perspective for policymakers, researchers, and professionals, suggesting that greenspaces may serve as a promising environmental intervention to reduce fatal police shooting and other types of social violence or conflict.
AlpertG. P.MacDonaldJ. M. (2001). Police use of force: An analysis of organizational characteristics. Justice Quarterly, 18(2), 393–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820100094951
2.
BesagJ.YorkJ.MollieA. (1991). Bayesian image-restoration, with 2 applications in spatial statistics. Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 43(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00116466
3.
BevanG. H.NasirK.RajagopalanS.Al-KindiS. (2022). Socioeconomic deprivation and premature cardiovascular mortality in the United States. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 97(6), 1108–1113.
4.
BeyerK. M.KaltenbachA.SzaboA.BogarS.NietoF. J.MaleckiK. M. (2014). Exposure to neighborhood green space and mental health: evidence from the survey of the health of Wisconsin. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(3), 3453–3472. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110303453
5.
BlalockH. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority-group relations (Vol. 325). Wiley.
6.
BlangiardoM.BlangiardoM.CamelettiM. (2015). Spatial and spatio-temporal Bayesian models with R-INLA. Wiley.
7.
BloomS. (2018). Violence: A public health menace and a public health approach (1st ed.). Routledge.
8.
BogarS.BeyerK. M. (2016). Green space, violence, and crime: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(2), 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015576
9.
BowlegL.BooneC. A.HoltS. L.Del Río-GonzálezA. M.MbabaM. (2022). Beyond “heartfelt condolences”: A critical take on mainstream psychology’s responses to anti-Black police brutality. The American Psychologist, 77(3), 362–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000899
10.
BranasC. C.CheneyR. A.MacDonaldJ. M.TamV. W.JacksonT. D.Ten HaveT. R. (2011). A difference-in-differences analysis of health, safety, and greening vacant urban space. American Journal of Epidemiology, 174(11), 1296–1306.
11.
BrantinghamP.BrantinghamP. (1995). Criminality of place: Crime generators and crime attractors. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 3, 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02242925
12.
BratmanG. N.HamiltonJ. P.DailyG. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249(1), 118–136.
13.
BrogdenM.NijharP. (2013). Community policing. Routledge.
BurleyB. A. (2018). Green infrastructure and violence: Do new street trees mitigate violent crime?Health & Place, 54, 43–49.
16.
ButlerD. C.PettersonS.PhillipsR. L.BazemoreA. W. (2013). Measures of social deprivation that predict health care access and need within a rational area of primary care service delivery. Health Services Research, 48(2pt1), 539–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01449.x
17.
CaplanJ. M.KennedyL. W. (2016). Risk terrain modeling: Crime prediction and risk reduction. University of California Press.
CesarioJ.JohnsonD. J.TerrillW. (2019). Is there evidence of racial disparity in police use of deadly force? Analyses of officer-involved fatal shootings in 2015–2016. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(5), 586–595. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618775108
20.
ColeH. V.Triguero-MasM.ConnollyJ. J.AnguelovskiI. (2019). Determining the health benefits of green space: Does gentrification matter?Health & Place, 57, 1–11.
21.
ColeyR. L.SullivanW. C.KuoF. E. (1997). Where does community grow? The social context created by nature in urban public housing. Environment and Behavior, 29(4), 468–494.
22.
CooperH. L. F.FulliloveM. (2016). Editorial: Excessive police violence as a public health issue. Journal of Urban Health, 93(Suppl. 1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0040-2
23.
CooperH. L. F.MooreL.GruskinS.KriegerN. (2004). Characterizing Perceived Police Violence: Implications for Public Health. American Journal of Public Health, 94(7), 1109–1118. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.7.1109
24.
CottrellE. K.O’MalleyJ. P.DambrunK.ParkB.HendricksM. A.XuH.CharlsonM.BazemoreA.ShenkmanE. A.SearsA. (2020). The impact of social and clinical complexity on diabetes control measures. The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 33(4), 600–610.
25.
DeGueS.FowlerK. A.CalkinsC. (2016). Deaths due to use of lethal force by law enforcement findings from the National Violent Death Reporting System, 17 US States, 2009-2012. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 51(5), S173–S187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.08.027
DeVylderJ. E.JunH.-J.FedinaL.ColemanD.AnglinD.CogburnC.LinkB.BarthR. P. (2018). Association of exposure to police violence with prevalence of mental health symptoms among urban residents in the United States. JAMA Network Open, 1(7), Article e184945. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4945
28.
DonovanG. H.PrestemonJ. P. (2012). The effect of trees on crime in Portland, Oregon. Environment and Behavior, 44(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510383238
DrawveG.ThomasS. A.WalkerJ. T. (2016). Bringing the physical environment back into neighborhood research: The utility of RTM for developing an aggregate neighborhood risk of crime measure. Journal of Criminal Justice, 44, 21–29.
31.
DuY.LawJ. (2016). How do vegetation density and transportation network density affect crime across an urban central-peripheral gradient? A case study in Kitchener—Waterloo, Ontario. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 5(7), Article 118.
32.
DuarteC. D.AlsonJ. G.GarakaniO. B.MitchellC. M. (2020). Applications of the American Public Health Association’s Statement on Addressing Law Enforcement Violence as a Public Health Issue. American Journal of Public Health, 110(Suppl. 1), S30–S32. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305447
33.
FisherB. S.NasarJ. L. (1992). Fear of crime in relation to three exterior site features: Prospect, refuge, and escape. Environment and Behavior, 24(1), 35–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916592241002
34.
FoneD. L.DunstanF. (2006). Mental health, places and people: A multilevel analysis of economic inactivity and social deprivation. Health & Place, 12(3), 332–344.
FryerR. G.Jr. (2019). An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use of force. Journal of Political Economy, 127(3), 1210–1261. https://doi.org/10.1086/701423
37.
FyfeJ. J. (1980). Geographic correlates of police shooting: A microanalysis. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17(1), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242788001700107
38.
FyfeN. R. (1992). Space, time, and policing: Towards a contextual understanding of police work. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 10(4), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1068/d100469
39.
GaltungJ.HöivikT. (1971). Structural and direct violence: A note on operationalization. Journal of Peace Research, 8(1), 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234337100800108
40.
GasconM.Sánchez-BenavidesG.DadvandP.MartínezD.GramuntN.GotsensX.CirachM.VertC.MolinuevoJ. L.Crous-BouM. (2018). Long-term exposure to residential green and blue spaces and anxiety and depression in adults: A cross-sectional study. Environmental Research, 162, 231–239.
41.
GellerW. A.KaralesK. J. (1981). Split-second decisions: Shootings of & by Chicago police. Chicago Law Enforcement Study Group Chicago.
42.
GilliganJ. (1999). Structural violence and “Psychological Violence,” articles in violence in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Charles Scribners Sons.
43.
GoldkampJ. S. (1976). Minorities as victims of police shootings: Interpretations of racial disproportionality and police use of deadly force. The Justice System Journal, 2(2), 169–183. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20877501
44.
GorelickN.HancherM.DixonM.IlyushchenkoS.ThauD.MooreR. (2017). Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sensing of Environment, 202, 18–27.
45.
GoyderE.MaheswaranR.ReadS.teamB. S.teamB. S. (2017). Associations between neighbourhood environmental factors and the uptake and effectiveness of a brief intervention to increase physical activity: Findings from deprived urban communities in an English city. Journal of Public Health, 39(1), 132–138.
46.
GriggsS.Horvat DaveyC.HowardQ.PignatielloG.DuwadiD. (2022). Socioeconomic deprivation, sleep duration, and mental health during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), Article 14367.
47.
HaskinsJ. (2018). Q&A with APHA’s Benjamin: Ending police violence a public health issue. The Nation's Health, 48(1), Article 3.
48.
HeQ.LiJ. (2022). The roles of built environment and social disadvantage on the geography of property crime. Cities, 121, Article 103471.
49.
HemenwayD.AzraelD.ConnerA.MillerM. (2019). Variation in rates of fatal police shootings across US states: the role of firearm availability. Journal of Urban Health, 96, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0313-z
50.
HerbertS. K. (2006). Citizens, cops, and power: Recognizing the limits of community. University of Chicago Press.
HolmesM. D.PainterM. A.SmithB. W. (2019). Race, place, and police-caused homicide in US municipalities. Justice Quarterly, 36(5), 751–786. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1427782
53.
HuT.WangS.SheB.ZhangM.HuangX.CuiY.KhuriJ.HuY.FuX.WangX. (2021). Human mobility data in the COVID-19 pandemic: characteristics, applications, and challenges. International Journal of Digital Earth, 14(9), 1126–1147.
54.
Irvin-EricksonY. (2014). Identifying risky places for crime: An analysis of the criminogenic spatiotemporal influences of landscape features on street robberiesRutgers University-Graduate School-Newark.
55.
JacobsD.BrittD. (1979). Inequality and police use of deadly force: An empirical assessment of a conflict hypothesis. Social Problems, 26(4), 403–412. https://doi.org/10.2307/800504
56.
JacobsD.O’BrienR. M. (1998). The determinants of deadly force: A structural analysis of police violence. The American Journal of Sociology, 103(4), 837–862. https://doi.org/10.1086/231291
57.
JacobsJ. (1964). The death and life of great American cities. Penguin in Association With Cape.
58.
JefferyC. R. (1971). Crime prevention through environmental design. Sage Publications.
59.
JenkinsM. M.MuyskensJ.NakhlawiR.RichS.TranA. B. (2022). 1,104 people have been shot and killed by police in the past 12 months. The Washington Post.
60.
JenningsJ. T.RubadoM. E. (2017). Preventing the use of deadly force: The relationship between police agency policies and rates of officer-involved gun deaths. Public Administration Review, 77(2), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12738
61.
JiangB.DealB.PanH.LarsenL.HsiehC. -H.ChangC. -Y.SullivanW. C. (2017). Remotely-sensed imagery vs. eye-level photography: Evaluating associations among measurements of tree cover density. Landscape and Urban Planning, 157, 270–281.
62.
JiangB.ChangC.-Y.SullivanW. C. (2014). A dose of nature: Tree cover, stress reduction, and gender differences. Landscape and Urban Planning, 132, 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.08.005
63.
JiangB.MakC. N. S.LarsenL.ZhongH. (2017). Minimizing the gender difference in perceived safety: Comparing the effects of urban back alley interventions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 51, 117–131.
64.
JiangB.MakC. N. S.ZhongH.LarsenL.WebsterC. J. (2018). From broken windows to perceived routine activities: Examining impacts of environmental interventions on perceived safety of urban alleys. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2450. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02450
65.
JorgensenA.HitchmoughJ.CalvertT. (2002). Woodland spaces and edges: Their impact on perception of safety and preference. Landscape and Urban Planning, 60(3), 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00052-X
66.
KaplanR. (1984). Wilderness perception and psychological benefits: An analysis of a continuing program. Leisure Sciences, 6(3), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490408409513036
67.
KaplanS. (1987). Mental fatigue and the designed environment. Environmental Design Research Association.
68.
KaźmierczakA. (2013). The contribution of local parks to neighbourhood social ties. Landscape and Urban Planning, 109(1), 31–44.
69.
KeilowM.WuC.ObelC. (2020). Cumulative social disadvantage and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Results from a nationwide cohort study. SSM-Population Health, 10, Article 100548.
70.
KellerT.CaplanJ.KennedyL. (2023). The influence of the environment on officer-involved shootings. Homicide Studies, 27(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/10887679221129857
KivistoA. J.RayB.PhalenP. L. (2017). Firearm legislation and fatal police shootings in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 107(7), 1068–1075.
73.
KlingerD.RosenfeldR.IsomD.DeckardM. (2016). Race, crime, and the micro-ecology of deadly force. Criminology & Public Policy, 15(1), 193–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12174
74.
KondoM. C.FluehrJ. M.McKeonT.BranasC. C. (2018). Urban green space and its impact on human health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3), Article 445.
75.
KondoM. C.JacobyS. F.SouthE. C. (2018). Does spending time outdoors reduce stress? A review of real-time stress response to outdoor environments. Health & Place, 51, 136–150.
76.
KriegerN. (2015). Police killings, political impunity, racism and the people’s health. Harvard Public Health Review, 3, 1–3.
77.
KuoF. E.BacaicoaM.SullivanW. C. (1998). Transforming inner-city landscapes: Trees, sense of safety, and preference. Environment and Behavior, 30(1), 28–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916598301002
78.
KuoF. E.SullivanW. C. (2001a). Aggression and violence in the inner city: Effects of environment via mental fatigue. Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 543–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160121973124
79.
KuoF. E.SullivanW. C. (2001b). Environment and crime in the inner city: Does vegetation reduce crime?Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916501333002
80.
KuoF. E.SullivanW. C.ColeyR. L. (1998). Fertile ground for community: Inner-city neighborhood common spaces. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(6), 823–851. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022294028903
81.
KweonB.-S.SullivanW. C.WileyA. R. (1998). Green common spaces and the social integration of inner-city older adults. Environment and Behavior, 30(6), 832–858. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659803000605
82.
LambH. R.WeinbergerL. E.DeCuirW. J.Jr. (2002). The police and mental health. Psychiatric Services, 53(10), 1266–1271.
83.
LanY.RobertsH.KwanM.-P.HelbichM. (2022). Daily space-time activities, multiple environmental exposures, and anxiety symptoms: A cross-sectional mobile phone-based sensing study. Science of the Total Environment, 834, Article 155276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155276
84.
LangworthyR. H. (1986). The structure of police organizations. Praeger.
85.
LeeB. X. (2019). Structural violence. In B. X. Lee (Ed.), Violence: An interdisciplinary approach to causes, consequences, and cures (pp. 123–142). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119240716.ch7
86.
LeslieT. F.FrankenfeldC. L.HatteryA. J. (2022). Differentiating Black and Hispanic: outcome differences of segregated communities and police shootings in the USA, 2015–2020. Injury Epidemiology, 9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-022-00372-y
87.
LiskaA. E.YuJ. (1992). Specifying and testing the threat hypothesis: Police use of deadly force. In A. E. Liska (Ed.), Social Threat and Social Control, (pp. 53–68). State University of New York Press.
88.
LockwoodD. (2007). Mapping crime in Savannah: Social disadvantage, land use, and violent crimes reported to the police. Social Science Computer Review, 25(2), 194–209.
89.
LuH.LiuL.ZhongH.JiangB. (2024). A dose of nature to reduce sexual crimes in public outdoor spaces: Proposing the Landscape-Sexual Crime Model. Landscape and Urban Planning, 250, 105143.
90.
MabughiN.SelimT. (2006). Poverty as social deprivation: A survey. Review of Social Economy, 64(2), 181–204.
91.
MacDonaldJ. M.AlpertG. P.TennenbaumA. N. (1999). Justifiable homicide by police and criminal homicide: A research note. Journal of Crime and Justice, 22(1), 153–166.
92.
MacDonaldJ. M.KaminskiR. J.AlpertG. P.TennenbaumA. N. (2001). The temporal relationship between police killings of civilians and criminal homicide: A refined version of the danger-perception theory. Crime & Delinquency, 47(2), 155–172.
93.
MasseyD. S.DentonN. A. (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social Forces, 67(2), 281–315.
94.
MatsushitaB.YangW.ChenJ.OndaY.QiuG. (2007). Sensitivity of the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to topographic effects: a case study in high-density cypress forest. Sensors, 7(11), 2636–2651.
95.
MazumdarS.LearnihanV.CochraneT.DaveyR. (2018). The built environment and social capital: A systematic review. Environment and Behavior, 50(2), 119–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916516687343
96.
MichaelS. E.HullR. B.ZahmD. L. (2001). Environmental factors influencing auto burglary: A case study. Environment and Behavior, 33(3), 368–388.
97.
MietheT. D.MeierR. F. (1994). Crime and its social context: Toward an integrated theory of offenders, victims, and situations. State University New York Press.
98.
MorrisM.Wheeler-MartinK.SimpsonD.MooneyS. J.GelmanA.DiMaggioC. (2019). Bayesian hierarchical spatial models: Implementing the Besag York Mollié model in stan. Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology, 31, Article 100301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sste.2019.100301
99.
NaghaviM. (2021). Fatal police violence by race and state in the USA, 1980–2019: A network meta-regression. The Lancet, 398(10307), 1239–1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01609-3
100.
NasarJ. L.FisherB. (1993). ‘Hot spots’ of fear and crime: A multi-method investigation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13(3), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80173-2
101.
NassauerJ. I. (1988). Landscape care: Perceptions of local people in landscape ecology and sustainable development. Landscape and Land Use Planning, 8, 27–41.
102.
NixJ.ShjarbackJ. A. (2021). Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data. PLOS ONE, 16(11), Article e0259024. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259024
103.
NowackiJ. S. (2015). Organizational-level police discretion: An application for police use of lethal force. Crime & Delinquency, 61(5), 643–668.
104.
NutsfordD.PearsonA. L.KinghamS. (2013). An ecological study investigating the association between access to urban green space and mental health. Public Health, 127(11), 1005–1011.
105.
OkaM.WongD. W. (2014). Capturing the two dimensions of residential segregation at the neighborhood level for health research. Frontiers in Public Health, 2, Article 118.
PhillipsR. L.LiawW.CramptonP.ExeterD. J.BazemoreA.VickeryK. D.PettersonS.CarrozzaM. (2016). How other countries use deprivation indices—And why the United States desperately needs one. Health Affairs, 35(11), 1991–1998. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0709
108.
ReklaitieneR.GrazulevicieneR.DedeleA.VirviciuteD.VenslovieneJ.TamosiunasA.BacevicieneM.LuksieneD.Sapranaviciute-ZabazlajevaL.RadisauskasR. (2014). The relationship of green space, depressive symptoms and perceived general health in urban population. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 42(7), 669–676.
109.
RobinG. D. (1963). Justifiable homicide by police officers. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 54(2), 225–231. https://doi.org/10.2307/1141171
110.
RoeJ.AspinallP. A.Ward ThompsonC. (2016). Understanding relationships between health, ethnicity, place and the role of urban green space in deprived urban communities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(7), Article 681. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13070681
111.
RoyD. P.WulderM. A.LovelandT. R.WoodcockC. E.AllenR. G.AndersonM. C.HelderD.IronsJ. R.JohnsonD. M.KennedyR. (2014). Landsat-8: Science and product vision for terrestrial global change research. Remote Sensing of Environment, 145, 154–172.
112.
SanciangcoJ. C.BreetzkeG. D.LinZ.WangY.ClevengerK. A.PearsonA. L. (2022). The relationship between city “greenness” and homicide in the US: Evidence over a 30-year period. Environment and Behavior, 54(2), 538–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165211045095
113.
SchwartzG. L.JahnJ. L. (2020). Mapping fatal police violence across U.S. metropolitan areas: Overall rates and racial/ethnic inequities, 2013–2017. PLOS ONE, 15(6), Article e0229686. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229686
114.
SheppardK.TuckerR. (2022). Police shooting mortality: Investigating individual, incident, and contextual factors differentiating fatal and non-fatal police shootings. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 20(4), 319–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2022.2122648
115.
ShermanL. W.LangworthyR. H. (1979). Measuring homicide by police officers. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 70, Article 546.
116.
SiegelM.ShermanR.LiC.KnopovA. (2019). The relationship between racial residential segregation and black-white disparities in fatal police shootings at the city level, 2013–2017. Journal of the National Medical Association, 111(6), 580–587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2019.06.003
117.
SmithB. W. (2004). Structural and organizational predictors of homicide by police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 27(4), 539–557.
118.
SmithS.FergusonC. J.San MiguelC. E.YnalvezM. A.HendersonH. (2022). Social, health and ethnicity correlates of complaints of excessive police force. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 32(4), 284–294.
119.
SorensenJ. R.MarquartJ. W.BrockD. E. (1993). Factors related to killings of felons by police officers: A test of the community violence and conflict hypotheses. Justice Quarterly, 10(3), 417–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829300091911
120.
SpargerJ. R.GiacopassiD. J. (1992). Memphis revisited: A reexamination of police shootings after the Garner decision. Justice Quarterly, 9(2), 211–225.
121.
SullivanW. C.KuoF. E.DepooterS. F. (2004). The fruit of urban nature: Vital neighborhood spaces. Environment and Behavior, 36(5), 678–700.
122.
SullivanW. C.LiD. (2021). Nature and attention. Nature and psychology: Biological, cognitive, developmental, and social pathways to well-being, 7-30.
TerrillW.ReisigM. D. (2003). Neighborhood context and police use of force. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40(3), 291–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427803253800
125.
ThomasS. A.DrawveG. (2018). Examining interactive effects of characteristics of the social and physical environment on aggravated assault. Journal of Criminal Justice, 57, 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.04.002
126.
ThomasS. A.HarrisC. T.DrawveG. (2022). Exploring the influence of elements of the social and physical environment on neighborhood gun crime. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 47, 370–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09599-1
127.
ThompsonC. W.RoeJ.AspinallP.MitchellR.ClowA.MillerD. (2012). More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landscape and urban planning, 105(3), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015
128.
Triguero-MasM.AnguelovskiI.ConnollyJ. J.MartinN.MatheneyA.ColeH. V.Pérez-Del-PulgarC.García-LamarcaM.ShokryG.ArgüellesL. (2022). Exploring green gentrification in 28 global North cities: The role of urban parks and other types of greenspaces. Environmental Research Letters, 17(10), Article 104035.
129.
TrojanowiczR. C.BucquerouxB. (1990). Community policing: A contemporary perspective. Anderson Publishing Company.
130.
UlrichR. S.SimonsR. F.LositoB. D.FioritoE.MilesM. A.ZelsonM. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7
131.
WarrenM. S.SkillmanS. W. (2020). Mobility changes in response to COVID-19. arXiv preprint arXiv:2003.14228.
132.
WickhamS.TaylorP.ShevlinM.BentallR. P. (2014). The impact of social deprivation on paranoia, hallucinations, mania and depression: The role of discrimination social support, stress and trust. PLOS ONE, 9(8), Article e105140.
133.
WikströmP.-O. H.TreiberK. (2016). Social disadvantage and crime: A criminological puzzle. American Behavioral Scientist, 60(10), 1232–1259.
134.
WolfeM. K.MennisJ. (2012). Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA. Landscape and Urban Planning, 108(2–4), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.08.006
135.
XuW.JiangB.SullivanW. C.WebsterC.LuY.ChenN.YuZ.ChenB. (2024). Racial disparities in environmental exposures and SARS-CoV-2 infection rates: A detailed population-weighted analysis. Sustainable Cities and Society, 101, 105135.
136.
XuW.WangH.SuH.SullivanW. C.LinG.PryorM.JiangB. (2024). Impacts of sights and sounds on anxiety relief in the high-density city. Landscape and urban planning, 241, 104927.
137.
YangY.JiangB.WangL.ZhouY.LiB.GongP. (2025). Thinking beyond general greenness: The nuanced associations between a variety of greenspaces and cardiovascular diseases across urbanicity. Landscape and Urban Planning, 253, 105223.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
