First graders, fifth graders, university students, and older adults drew sketch maps of familiar environments. Not until after the sketch maps were collected did subjects have any idea that the study had anything to do with expression of preferences. At that time, subjects were asked to identify (recall) objects located in the environment drawn that they liked most, disliked most, and about which they felt neutral These items were compared with other items on the sketch maps to determine whether they were drawn on the same scale, were emphasized, or were absent. A similar pattern of results was found across age groups; most of the subjects did not draw items they disliked on their sketch maps. These results suggested a dissociation between indirect (map drawing) and direct (specific recall) approaches to expressing preferences.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, G. L. , Kirasic, K. C., & Beard, R. L. (1989). Children's expressions of spatial knowledge. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 114-130.
2.
Anooshian, L. J. (1988). Places versus procedures in spatial cognition: Altemative approaches to defining and remembering landmarks. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 389-391.
3.
Anooshian, L. J. (1991, April). Identifying and remembering pictures: Contrasting developmental trends for direct and indirect memory measures. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.
4.
Anooshian, L. J. , & Kromer, M. (1986). Children's spatial knowledge of their school campus. Developmental Psychology, 22, 854-860.
5.
Anooshian, L. J. , & Siegel, A. W. (1985). From cognitive to procedural mapping. In C. J. Brainerd & M. Pressley (Eds.), Basic processes in memory development: Progress in cognitive development research (pp. 47-101). New York: Springer-Verlag.
6.
Bower, G. H. , & Mayer, J. D. (1985). Failure to replicate mood-dependent retrieval. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 23, 39-42.
7.
Bower, G. H. , & Mayer, J. D. (1989). In search of mood-dependent memory: Theory, research, and applications [Special issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4(2), 121-156.
8.
Branscombe, N. R. (1988). Conscious and unconscious processing of affective and cognitive information. In K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and social behavior: New evidence and integrative attempts (pp. 24-93). Toronto: Hogrefe.
9.
Clark, M. S. , Milberg, S., & Erber, R. (1988). Arousal state-dependency memory: Evidence and implications for understanding social judgments and social behavior. In K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and social behavior (pp. 63-83). Toronto: Hogrefe.
10.
Dempster, F. N. (1992). The rise and fall of inhibitory mechanism: Toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Developmental Review, 12, 45-75.
11.
Ellis, H. C. (1985). On the importance of mood intensity and encoding demands in memory: Commentary on Hasher, Zacks, Rose, Sanft, and Doren. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 392-395.
12.
[Special issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4(2), 1-21.
13.
Ellis, H. C. , & Hertel, P. T. (in press). Cognition, emotion, and memory: Some applications and issues. In C. Izawa (Ed.), Cognitive psychology applied. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Fiske, S. T. , & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
15.
Forgas, J. , & Bower, G. H. (1988). Affect in social and personal judgments. In K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognition and social behavior (pp. 183-208). Toronto: Hogrefe.
16.
Forgas, J. P. , & Moylan, S. (1987). After the movies: Transient mood and social judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13(4), 467-477.
17.
Geiselman, R. E. , Bjork, R. A., & Fishman, D. L. (1983). Disrupted retrieval in directed forgetting: A link with posthypnotic amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 58-72.
18.
Holahan, C. J. , & Dobrowolny, M. B. (1978). Cognitive and behavioral correlates of spatial behavior: An interactional analysis. Environment and Behavior, 10, 317-333.
19.
Howard, D. V. (1988). Implicit and explicit assessment of cognitive aging. In C. J. Brainerd & M. L. Howe (Eds.), Cognitive development in adulthood: Progress in cognitive development research (pp. 3-37). New York: Springer-Verlag.
20.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Toward understanding the role of affect in cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 179-236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
21.
Jacoby, L. L. (1988). Memory observed and memory unobserved. In U. Neisser & E. Winograd (Eds.), Real events remembered: Ecological approaches to the study of memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22.
Laird, J. D. , & Bresler, C. (1992). The process of emotional experience: A self-perception theory. In M. Clark (Ed.), Emotion: Review of personality and socialpsychology (Vol. 13, pp. 223-234). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
23.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognifive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 819-834.
24.
Liben, L. S. (1982). Children's large-scale spatial cognition: Is the measure the message? In R. Cohen (Ed.), New directions for child development: Vol. 15. Children's conceptions of spatial relationships (pp. 51-64). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
25.
Light, L. L. , Singh, A., & Capps, J. L. (1986). Dissociation of memory and awareness in young and older adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 8, 62-74.
26.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge: MIT Press.
27.
Maurer, R. , & Baxter, J. C. (1972). Images of the neighborhood and city among Black, Anglo, and Mexican-American children. Environment and Behavior, 4, 351-388.
28.
Naito, M. (1990). Repetition priming in children and adults: Age-related dissociafion between implicit and explicit memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 462-484.
29.
Newcombe, N. (1985). Methods for the study of spatial cognition. In R. Cohen (Ed.), The development of spatial cognition (pp. 277-300). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30.
Presson, C. C. (1987a). The development of landmarks in spatial memory: The role of differential experience. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 44, 317-334.
31.
Presson, C. C. (1987b). The development of spatial cognition: Secondary uses of spatial information. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Contemporary topics in developmental psychology (pp. **???**). New York: Wiley.
32.
Richardson-Klavehn, A. , & Bjork, R. A. (1988). Measures of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 475-543.
33.
Rothkopf, J. S. , & Blaney, P. H. (1991). Mood congruent memory: The role of affective focus and gender. Cognition and Emotion, 5(1), 53-64.
34.
Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Leaming, Memory and Cognition, 13, 501-522.
35.
Seibert, P. S. , & Anooshian, L. J. (1992, May). Thoughts reveal the nature of emotional states and the quality of task performance. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, San Diego.
36.
Seibert, P. S. , & Ellis, H. C. (1991). Irrelevant thoughts, emotional mood states, and cognitive task performance. Memory and Cognition, 19, 507-513.
37.
Siegel, A. W. (1981). The externalization of cognitive maps by children and adults: In search of ways to ask better questions. In L. Liben, A. Patterson, & N. Newcombe (Eds.), Spatial representation and behavior across the life span (pp. 167-194). New York: Academic Press.
38.
Siegel, A. W. , Kirasic, C., & Kail, R. (1978). Stalking the elusive cognitive map: The development of children's representations of geographic space. In J. Wohlwill & I. Altman (Eds.), Human behavior and environment: Children and the environment (pp. 223-258). New York: Plenum.
39.
Singer, J. A. , & Salovey, P. (1988). Mood and memory: Evaluating the network theory of affect. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 211-251.
40.
Ucros, C. G. (1989). Mood state-dependent memory: A meta analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 3(2), 139-167.
41.
Wyer, R. S. , & Unverzagt, W. H. (1985). Effects of instructions to disregard information on its subsequent recall and use in making judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 533-549.
