Nature Exposure is Associated With Reduced Smartphone Use

Abstract

Evidence links greenspace exposure with restorative benefits to cognition and well-being, yet nature contact is declining for younger demographics. Although natural settings have been shown to restore the capacity to inhibit distracting stimuli, it remains unknown whether smartphone attention capture disrupts nature contact. Here, we analyzed ~2.5 million observations of logged smartphone use, texting, calling, and environmental exposures for 701 young adults over 2 years. Participants’ weekly smartphone screen-time was over double their green-time. The relationship between greenspace exposure and smartphone activity differed by exposure dose, type, and mobility state. Calling and texting increased during short recreational greenspace visits while all smartphone use declined over the first 3 hr in nature areas, suggesting that nature exposure may support digital impulse inhibition. Those with elevated baseline screen-time or green-time significantly reduced device use in nature, indicating that parts of the biosphere may provide a reprieve from the cybersphere for highly connected youth.

Keywords

restorative environments attention restoration theory device use smartphone social interaction greenspace

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aerts

Honnay

Van Nieuwenhuyse

(2018). Biodiversity and human health: Mechanisms and evidence of the positive health effects of diversity in nature and green spaces. British Medical Bulletin, 127(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldy021

Alessandretti

Sapiezynski

Sekara

Lehmann

Baronchelli

(2018). Evidence for a conserved quantity in human mobility. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(7), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0364-x

Allcott

Braghieri

Eichmeyer

Gentzkow

(2020). The welfare effects of social media. American Economic Review, 110(3), 629–676. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20190658

Althoff

White

R. W.

Horvitz

(2016). Influence of Pokémon Go on physical activity: Study and implications. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 18(12), e315. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6759

Anderson

S. E.

Economos

C. D.

Must

(2008). Active play and screen time in US children aged 4 to 11 years in relation to sociodemographic and weight status characteristics: A nationally representative cross-sectional analysis. BMC Public Health, 8(1), 366. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-366

Aspinall

Mavros

Coyne

Roe

(2015). The urban brain: Analysing outdoor physical activity with mobile EEG. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(4), 272–276. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091877

Bakolis

Hammoud

Smythe

Gibbons

Davidson

Tognin

Mechelli

(2018). Urban mind: Using smartphone technologies to investigate the impact of Nature on mental well-being in real time. Bioscience, 68(2), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix149

Barton

Pretty

(2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10), 3947–3955. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903183r

Bassett

D. R.

John

Conger

S. A.

Fitzhugh

E. C.

Coe

D. P.

(2015). Trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviors of United States Youth. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 12(8), 1102–1111. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0050

10.

Basu

Duvall

Kaplan

(2019). Attention restoration theory: Exploring the role of soft fascination and mental bandwidth. Environment and Behavior, 51(9-10), 1055–1081. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518774400

11.

Being young in Europe today. 7. Digital world . (Statistics Explained). (2020). Eurostat, European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Being_young_in_Europe_today

12.

Berman

M. G.

Kross

Krpan

K. M.

Askren

M. K.

Burson

Deldin

P. J.

Kaplan

Sherdell

Gotlib

I. H.

Jonides

(2012). Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(3), 300–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.012

13.

Berto

(2014). The role of nature in coping with psycho-physiological stress: A literature review on restorativeness. Behavioral Sciences, 4(4), 394–409. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs4040394

14.

Bjerre-Nielsen

Andersen

Minor

Lassen

D. D.

(2020). The negative effect of smartphone use on academic performance may Be overestimated: Evidence from a 2-year panel study. Psychological Science, 31(11), 1351–1362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620956613

15.

Bjerre-Nielsen

Kassarnig

Lassen

D. D.

Lehmann

(2021). Task-specific information outperforms surveillance-style big data in predictive analytics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(14), e2020258118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2020258118

16.

Bjerre-Nielsen

Minor

Sapieżyński

Lehmann

Lassen

D. D.

(2020). Inferring transportation mode from smartphone sensors: Evaluating the potential of Wi-Fi and bluetooth. PLoS One, 15(7), e0234003. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234003

17.

Bowler

D. E.

Buyung-Ali

L. M.

Knight

T. M.

Pullin

A. S.

(2010). A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health, 10(1), 456. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-456

18.

Braghieri

Levy

Makarin

(2022). Social media and mental health. American Economic Review, 112(11), 3660–3693.

19.

Bratman

G. N.

Anderson

C. B.

Berman

M. G.

Cochran

de Vries

Flanders

Folke

Frumkin

Gross

J. J.

Hartig

Kahn

Jr Kuo

Lawler

J. J

Levin

P. S

Lindahl

Meyer-Lindenberg

Mitchell

Ouyang

Roe

, . . . Daily

. (2019). Nature and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective. Science Advances, 5(7), eaax0903. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax0903

20.

Bratman

G. N.

Daily

G. C.

Levy

B. J.

Gross

J. J.

(2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.005

21.

Bratman

G. N.

Hamilton

J. P.

Daily

G. C.

(2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249, 118–136.

22.

Bratman

G. N.

Hamilton

J. P.

Hahn

K. S.

Daily

G. C.

Gross

J. J.

(2015). Nature experience reduces rumination and subgenual prefrontal cortex activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(28), 8567–8572. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1510459112

23.

Browning

M. H. E. M.

Mimnaugh

K. J.

van Riper

C. J.

Laurent

H. K.

LaValle

S. M.

(2020). Can simulated nature support mental health? Comparing short, single-doses of 360-degree nature videos in virtual reality with the outdoors. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2667. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02667

24.

Celikors

Wells

N. M.

Field

D. J.

(2020). On the statistics of soothing natural scenes. Journal of Vision, 20(11), 821. https://doi.org/10.1167/jov.20.11.821

25.

Charmaraman

Richer

A. M.

Ben-Joseph

E. P.

Klerman

E. B.

(2021). Quantity, content, and context matter: Associations among social technology use and sleep habits in early adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 69, 162–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.09.035

26.

Chawla

Keena

Pevec

Stanley

(2014). Green schoolyards as havens from stress and resources for resilience in childhood and adolescence. Health & Place, 28, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.03.001

27.

Cheever

N. A.

Rosen

L. D.

Carrier

L. M.

Chavez

(2014). Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 290–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.002

28.

Cleary

Fielding

K. S.

Bell

S. L.

Murray

Roiko

(2017). Exploring potential mechanisms involved in the relationship between eudaimonic wellbeing and nature connection. Landscape and Urban Planning, 158, 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.10.003

29.

Cohen

Evans

G. W.

Stokols

Krantz

D. S.

(2013). Behavior, health, and environmental stress. Springer Science & Business Media.

30.

Cox

D. T.

Shanahan

D. F.

Hudson

H. L.

Fuller

R. A.

Anderson

Hancock

Gaston

K. J.

(2017a). Doses of nearby nature simultaneously associated with multiple health benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(2), 172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020172

31.

Cox

D. T. C.

Shanahan

D. F.

Hudson

H. L.

Plummer

K. E.

Siriwardena

G. M.

Fuller

R. A.

Anderson

Hancock

Gaston

K. J.

(2017). Doses of neighborhood nature: The benefits for mental health of living with nature. Bioscience, 67(2), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw173

32.

Crawford

M. R.

Holder

M. D.

O’Connor

B. P.

(2017). Using mobile technology to engage children with nature. Environment and Behavior, 49(9), 959–984. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916516673870

33.

Crofton

(2020). Less screen, more green (B&W edition): The mindful tech plan is Digital detox made fun using the powers of nature, mindfulness and being truly connected. Independently Published.

34.

Cuttone

Lehmann

Larsen

J. E.

(2014). Inferring human mobility from sparse low accuracy mobile sensing data [Conference session]. Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing: Adjunct Publication, 995–1004. https://doi.org/10.1145/2638728.2641283

35.

de Vries

Claßen

Eigenheer-Hug

S.-M.

Korpela

Maas

Mitchell

Schantz

. (2011). Contributions of natural environments to physical activity. In Nilsson

Sangster

Gallis

Hartig

de Vries

Seeland

Schipperijn

(Eds.), Forests, trees and human health (pp. 205–243). Springer Netherlands.

36.

de Vries

van Dillen

S. M. E.

Groenewegen

P. P.

Spreeuwenberg

. (2013). Streetscape greenery and health: Stress, social cohesion and physical activity as mediators. Social Science & Medicine, 94, 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.030

37.

de Vries

Verheij

R. A.

Groenewegen

P. P.

Spreeuwenberg

. (2003). Natural Environments—healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between Greenspace and Health. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 35(10), 1717–1731. https://doi.org/10.1068/a35111

38.

Dwyer

R. J.

Kushlev

Dunn

E. W.

(2018). Smartphone use undermines enjoyment of face-to-face social interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.10.007

39.

Dzhambov

Hartig

Markevych

Tilov

Dimitrova

(2018). Urban residential greenspace and mental health in youth: Different approaches to testing multiple pathways yield different conclusions. Environmental Research, 160, 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.015

40.

Edwards

R. C.

Larson

B. M. H.

(2020). When screens replace backyards: Strategies to connect digital-media-oriented young people to nature. Environmental Education Research, 26(7), 950–968. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2020.1776844

41.

Ellis

D. A.

(2019). Are smartphones really that bad? Improving the psychological measurement of technology-related behaviors. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.006

42.

Engemann

Pedersen

C. B.

Arge

Tsirogiannis

Mortensen

P. B.

Svenning

J.-C.

(2019). Residential green space in childhood is associated with lower risk of psychiatric disorders from adolescence into adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(11), 5188–5193. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1807504116

43.

Evans

G. W.

Otto

Kaiser

F. G.

(2018). Childhood origins of young adult environmental behavior. Psychological Science, 29(5), 679–687. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617741894

44.

Fong

K. C.

Hart

J. E.

James

(2018). A review of Epidemiologic Studies on Greenness and Health: Updated literature through 2017. Current Environmental Health Reports, 5(1), 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0179-y

45.

Frumkin

Bratman

G. N.

Breslow

S. J.

Cochran

Kahn

P. H.

Jr Lawler

J. J.

Levin

P. S.

Tandon

P. S.

Varanasi

Wolf

K. L.

Wood

S. A.

(2017). Nature contact and human health: A research agenda. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(7), 075001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1663

46.

Fuller

R. A.

Irvine

K. N.

Devine-Wright

Warren

P. H.

Gaston

K. J.

(2007). Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. Biology Letters, 3, 390–394. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149

47.

Glass

A. L.

Kang

(2019). Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance. Educational Psychologist, 39(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1489046

48.

Greenwood

Gatersleben

(2016). Let’s go outside! Environmental restoration amongst adolescents and the impact of friends and phones. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 48, 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.09.007

49.

Groenewegen

P. P.

van Den Berg

A. E.

Maas

Verheij

R. A.

de Vries

(2012). Is a green residential environment better for health? If so, why? Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 102(5), 996–1003. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2012.674899

50.

Hartig

(2021). Restoration in nature: Beyond the conventional narrative. In A. R. Schutte, J. R. Stevens, & J. C. Torquati (Eds.), Nature and psychology (pp. 89–151). Springer.

51.

Hodes

L. N.

Thomas

K. G. F.

(2021). Smartphone screen time: Inaccuracy of self-reports and influence of psychological and contextual factors. Computers in Human Behavior, 115, 106616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106616

52.

Hofferth

S. L.

(2009). Changes in American children’s time - 1997 to 2003. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research, 6(1), 26–47.

53.

Hunter

M. R.

Gillespie

B. W.

Chen

S. Y.

(2019). Urban nature experiences reduce stress in the context of daily life based on salivary biomarkers. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 722. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00722

54.

James

Banay

R. F.

Hart

J. E.

Laden

(2015). A review of the health benefits of Greenness. Current Epidemiology Reports, 2(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-015-0043-7

55.

Jiang

Schmillen

Sullivan

W. C.

(2019). How to waste a break: Using portable electronic devices substantially counteracts attention enhancement effects of green spaces. Environment and Behavior, 51(9-10), 1133–1160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518788603

56.

Johansson

Hartig

Staats

(2011). Psychological benefits of walking: Moderation by company and outdoor environment. Applied Psychology. Health and Well-Being, 3(3), 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01051.x

57.

Jones-Jang

S. M.

Heo

Y.-J.

McKeever

Kim

J.-H.

Moscowitz

(2020). Good news! communication findings may be underestimated: Comparing effect sizes with self-reported and logged smartphone use data. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 25, 346–363. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmaa009

58.

Kahn

P. H.

(2011). Technological nature: Adaptation and the future of human life. MIT Press.

59.

Kaplan

(1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. CUP Archive.

60.

Kaplan

(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2

61.

Kassarnig

Bjerre-Nielsen

Mones

Lehmann

Lassen

D. D.

(2017). Class attendance, peer similarity, and academic performance in a large field study. PLoS One, 12(11), e0187078. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187078

62.

Keeler

B. L.

Hamel

McPhearson

Hamann

M. H.

Donahue

M. L.

Meza Prado

K. A.

Arkema

K. K.

Bratman

G. N.

Brauman

K. A.

Finlay

J. C.

Guerry

A. D.

Hobbie

S. E.

Johnson

J. A.

MacDonald

G. K.

McDonald

R. I.

Neverisky

Wood

S. A.

(2019). Social-ecological and technological factors moderate the value of urban nature. Nature Sustainability, 2(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0202-1

63.

Kellert

S. R.

Wilson

E. O.

(1993). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press.

64.

Kojaku

Hébert-Dufresne

Mones

Lehmann

Ahn

Y.-Y.

(2021). The effectiveness of backward contact tracing in networks. Nature Physics, 17(5), 652–658. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41567-021-01187-2

65.

Kuo

F. E.

Sullivan

W. C.

Coley

R. L.

Brunson

(1998). Fertile ground for community: Inner-city neighborhood common spaces. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(6), 823–851. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022294028903

66.

Kuo

(2015). How might contact with nature promote human health? Promising mechanisms and a possible central pathway. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01093

67.

Kushlev

Dwyer

Dunn

E. W.

(2019). The social price of constant connectivity: smartphones impose subtle costs on well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(4), 347–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419847200

68.

Kushlev

Hunter

J. F.

Proulx

Pressman

S. D.

Dunn

(2019). Smartphones reduce smiles between strangers. Computers in Human Behavior, 91, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.023

69.

Larson

L. R.

Szczytko

Bowers

E. P.

Stephens

L. E.

Stevenson

K. T.

Floyd

M. F.

(2019). Outdoor time, screen time, and connection to nature: Troubling trends among rural youth? Environment and Behavior, 51(8), 966–991. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518806686

70.

LeBlanc

A. G.

Chaput

J.-P.

(2017). Pokémon Go: A game changer for the physical inactivity crisis? Preventive Medicine, 101, 235–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.11.012

71.

Deal

Zhou

Slavenas

Sullivan

W. C.

(2018). Moving beyond the neighborhood: Daily exposure to nature and adolescents’ mood. Landscape and Urban Planning, 173, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.01.009

72.

Lin

Zeng

Asner

G. P.

Wilcove

D. S.

(2023). Coral reefs and coastal tourism in Hawaii. Nature Sustainability. 6, 254–258. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-01021-4

73.

Ling

(2017). A brief history of individual addressability: The role of mobile communication in being permanently connected. In Vorderer

Hefner

Reinecke

Klimmt

(Eds.), Permanently Online, Permanently Connected (pp. 10–17). Routledge.

74.

Lissak

(2018). Adverse physiological and psychological effects of screen time on children and adolescents: Literature review and case study. Environmental Research, 164, 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.015

75.

Lorenz-Spreen

Mønsted

B. M.

Hövel

Lehmann

(2019). Accelerating dynamics of collective attention. Nature Communications, 10(1), 1759. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09311-w

76.

Maas

van Dillen

S. M. E.

Verheij

R. A.

Groenewegen

P. P.

(2009). Social contacts as a possible mechanism behind the relation between green space and health. Health & Place, 15(2), 586–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.09.006

77.

MacKerron

Mourato

(2013). Happiness is greater in natural environments. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 992–1000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.03.010

78.

McDool

Powell

Roberts

Taylor

(2020). The internet and children’s psychological wellbeing. Journal of Health Economics, 69, 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102274

79.

McEwan

Richardson

Brindley

Sheffield

Tait

Johnson

Sutch

Ferguson

F. J.

(2020). Shmapped: Development of an app to record and promote the well-being benefits of noticing urban nature. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 10(3), 723–733. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibz027

80.

McNeish

Kelley

(2019). Fixed effects models versus mixed effects models for clustered data: Reviewing the approaches, disentangling the differences, and making recommendations. Psychological Methods, 24(1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000182

81.

Milgram

(1970). The experience of living in cities: A psychological analysis. In Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association., Sep, 1969, Washington, DC, US; This paper is based on an Invited Address presented to the Division of General Psychology at the aforementioned meeting. American Psychological Association.

82.

Misra

Cheng

Genevie

Yuan

(2016). The iphone effect: The quality of in-person social interactions in the presence of mobile devices. Environment and Behavior, 48(2), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916514539755

83.

Misra

Stokols

(2012a). A typology of people–environment relationships in the digital age. Technology and Society, 34(4), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2012.10.003

84.

Misra

Stokols

(2012b). Psychological and health outcomes of perceived information overload. Environment and Behavior, 44(6), 737–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916511404408

85.

Mitchell

Popham

(2008). Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: An observational population study. Lancet, 372(9650), 1655–1660. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61689-x

86.

Müller

S. R.

Bayer

J. B.

Ross

M. Q.

Mount

Stachl

Harari

G. M.

Chang

Y. J.

H. T. K.

(2022). Analyzing GPS data for psychological research: A Tutorial. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 5(2), 25152459221082680.

87.

Myers

Frumkin

(2020). Planetary health: Protecting nature to protect ourselves. Island Press.

88.

Nardone

Rudolph

K. E.

Morello-Frosch

Casey

J. A.

(2021). Redlines and greenspace: The relationship between historical redlining and 2010 greenspace across the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(1), 17006.

89.

Nieuwenhuijsen

M. J.

Khreis

Triguero-Mas

Gascon

Dadvand

(2017). Fifty Shades of Green: Pathway to Healthy Urban Living. Epidemiology, 28(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000549

90.

Ohly

White

M. P.

Wheeler

B. W.

Bethel

Ukoumunne

O. C.

Nikolaou

Garside

(2016). Attention Restoration Theory: A systematic review of the attention restoration potential of exposure to natural environments. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B, 19(7), 305–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2016.1196155

91.

Oleksy

Wnuk

(2017). Catch them all and increase your place attachment! The role of location-based augmented reality games in changing people - place relations. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.008

92.

Orben

(2020). Teenagers, screens and social media: A narrative review of reviews and key studies. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(4), 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4

93.

Orben

Dienlin

Przybylski

A. K.

(2019). Social media’s enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(21), 10226–10228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1902058116

94.

Park

B. J.

Tsunetsugu

Kasetani

Kagawa

Miyazaki

(2010). The physiological effects of shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): Evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 15(1), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12199-009-0086-9

95.

Parry

D. A.

Davidson

B. I.

Sewall

C. J. R.

Fisher

J. T.

Mieczkowski

Quintana

D. S.

(2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of discrepancies between logged and self-reported digital media use. Nature Human Behaviour, 5, 1535–1547. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01117-5

96.

Pergams

O. R. W

Zaradic

P. A.

(2006). Is love of nature in the US becoming love of electronic media? 16-year downtrend in national park visits explained by watching movies, playing video games, internet use, and oil prices. Journal of Environmental Management, 80(4), 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.02.001

97.

Pergams

O. R. W.

Zaradic

P. A.

(2008). Evidence for a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(7), 2295–2300. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709893105

98.

Pyky

Neuvonen

Kangas

Ojala

Lanki

Borodulin

Tyrväinen

(2019). Individual and environmental factors associated with green exercise in urban and suburban areas. Health & Place, 55, 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.11.001

99.

Radtke

Apel

Schenkel

Keller

von Lindern

(2022). Digital detox: An effective solution in the smartphone era? A systematic literature review. Mobile Media & Communication, 10, 190–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/20501579211028647

100.

Rafaeli

Ashtar

Altman

(2019). Digital traces: New data, resources, and tools for psychological-science research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(6), 560–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419861410

101.

Reid

Clougherty

Shmool

Kubzansky

(2017). Is all urban green space the same? A comparison of the health benefits of trees and grass in New York City. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(11), 1411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111411

102.

Roe

J. J.

Thompson

C. W.

Aspinall

P. A.

Brewer

M. J.

Duff

E. I.

Miller

Mitchell

Clow

(2013). Green space and stress: Evidence from cortisol measures in deprived urban communities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(9), 4086–4103. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10094086

103.

San Juan

Subiza-Pérez

Vozmediano

. (2017). Restoration and the city: The role of public urban squares. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2093. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02093

104.

Sapiezynski

Stopczynski

Lassen

D. D.

Lehmann

(2019). Interaction data from the Copenhagen Networks Study. Scientific Data, 6(1), 315. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-019-0325-x

105.

Schilhab

T. S. S.

Stevenson

M. P.

Bentsen

(2018). Contrasting screen-time and green-time: A case for using smart technology and nature to optimize learning processes. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 773. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00773

106.

Schipperijn

Ekholm

Stigsdotter

U. K.

Toftager

Bentsen

Kamper-Jørgensen

Randrup

T. B.

(2010). Factors influencing the use of green space: Results from a Danish national representative survey. Landscape and Urban Planning, 95(3), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2009.12.010

107.

Schneider

Schaal

(2018). Location-based smartphone games in the context of environmental education and education for sustainable development: Fostering connectedness to nature with Geogames. Environmental Education Research, 24(11), 1597–1610. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1383360

108.

Schwartz

A. J.

Dodds

P. S.

O’Neil-Dunne

J. P. M.

Ricketts

T. H.

Danforth

C. M.

(2020). Gauging the happiness benefit of US urban parks through Twitter. ArXiv:2006.10658 [Physics]. http://arxiv.org/abs/2006.10658

109.

Schwartz

A. J.

Dodds

P. S.

O’Neil-Dunne

J. P. M.

Danforth

C. M.

Ricketts

T. H.

(2019). Visitors to urban greenspace have higher sentiment and lower negativity on Twitter. People and Nature, 1(4), 476–485. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10045

110.

Schwarz

Fragkias

Boone

C. G.

Zhou

McHale

Grove

J. M.

O’Neil-Dunne

McFadden

J. P.

Buckley

G. L.

Childers

Ogden

Pincetl

Pataki

Whitmer

Cadenasso

M. L.

(2015). Trees Grow on Money: Urban tree canopy cover and environmental justice. PLoS One, 10(4), e0122051. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122051

111.

Sekara

Stopczynski

Lehmann

(2016). Fundamental structures of dynamic social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(36), 9977–9982. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602803113

112.

Shanahan

D. F.

Bush

Gaston

K. J.

Lin

B. B.

Dean

Barber

Fuller

R. A.

(2016). Health benefits from nature experiences depend on dose. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 28551. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28551

113.

Shaw

Ellis

D. A.

Geyer

Davidson

B. I.

Ziegler

F. V.

Smith

(2020a). Quantifying smartphone “Use”: Choice of Measurement Impacts Relationships Between “Usage” and Health. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 1(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000022

114.

Shaw

Ellis

Geyer

Davidson

B. I.

Ziegler

Smith

(2020b). Quantifying smartphone ‘use’: Choice of measurement impacts relationships between ‘usage’ and health. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/mpxra

115.

Soga

Gaston

K. J

. (2023). Global synthesis reveals heterogeneous changes in connection of humans to nature. One Earth, 6(2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.01.007

116.

Soga

Gaston

K. J.

(2016). Extinction of experience: The loss of human-nature interactions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 14(2), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1225

117.

South

E. C.

Hohl

B. C.

Kondo

M. C.

MacDonald

J. M.

Branas

C. C.

(2018). Effect of greening vacant land on Mental Health of community-dwelling adults: A cluster randomized trial. JAMA network open, 1(3), e180298. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.0298

118.

Staats

Hartig

(2004). Alone or with a friend: A social context for psychological restoration and environmental preferences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(2), 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.005

119.

Stevenson

M. P.

Schilhab

Bentsen

(2018). Attention restoration theory II: A systematic review to clarify attention processes affected by exposure to natural environments. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B, 21(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2018.1505571

120.

Stokols

(2018). 4—Rise of the Internet—navigating our online and place-based ecologies. In Stokols

(Ed.), Social ecology in the digital age (pp. 89–136). Academic Press.

121.

Stopczynski

Sekara

Sapiezynski

Cuttone

Madsen

M. M.

Larsen

J. E.

Lehmann

(2014). Measuring large-scale social networks with high resolution. PLoS One, 9(4), e95978. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095978

122.

Taylor

A. F.

Kuo

F. E.

Sullivan

W. C.

(2002). Views of nature and self-discipline: Evidence from inner city children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22(1-2), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2001.0241

123.

Thornton

Faires

Robbins

Rollins

(2014). The mere presence of a cell phone may be distracting: Implications for attention and task performance. Social Psychology, 45(6), 479–488. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000216

124.

Turkle

(2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books.

125.

Twenge

J. M.

(2019). More Time on technology, less happiness? Associations between digital-media use and psychological well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(4), 372–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419838244

126.

Twenge

J. M.

Campbell

W. K.

(2018). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 271–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.10.003

127.

Ulrich

(1983). Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. Human Behavior & Environment: Advances in Theory & Research, 6, 85–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3539-9_4

128.

Ulrich

R. S.

Simons

R. F.

Losito

B. D.

Fiorito

Miles

M. A.

Zelson

(1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80184-7

129.

United Nations. (2018). The World’s Cities in 2018—Data Booklet. UN. https://doi.org/10.18356/8519891f-en

130.

van Den Berg

A. E.

Joye

de Vries

. (2018). Health benefits of nature. In Steg

de Groot

J. I.

(Eds.), Environmental psychology: An introduction (pp. 55–64). Wiley.

131.

van Den Berg

A. E.

Maas

Verheij

R. A.

Groenewegen

P. P

. (2010). Green space as a buffer between stressful life events and health. Social Science & Medicine, 70(8), 1203–1210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.01.002

132.

van Den Berg

Wendel-Vos

van Poppel

Kemper

van Mechelen

Maas

. (2015). Health benefits of green spaces in the living environment: A systematic review of epidemiological studies. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 14(4), 806–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.07.008

133.

Ward

A. F.

Duke

Gneezy

Bos

M. W.

(2017). Brain Drain: The Mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1086/691462

134.

Ward Thompson

Roe

Aspinall

Mitchell

Clow

Miller

. (2012). More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: Evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landscape and Urban Planning, 105(3), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015

135.

Wells

Lekies

(2006). Nature and the life course: Pathways from childhood nature experiences to adult environmentalism1. Children Youth and Environments, 16(1), 1–24.

136.

Wells

N. M.

(2000). At home with nature: Effects of “Greenness” on children’s cognitive functioning. Environment and Behavior, 32(6), 775–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139160021972793

137.

Wells

N. M.

Evans

G. W.

(2003). Nearby nature: A buffer of life stress among rural children. Environment and Behavior, 35(3), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916503035003001

138.

White

M. P.

Alcock

Grellier

Wheeler

B. W.

Hartig

Warber

S. L.

Bone

Depledge

M. H.

Fleming

L. E.

(2019). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 7730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3

139.

Whitlock

Masur

P. K.

(2019). Disentangling the association of screen time with developmental outcomes and well-being: Problems, challenges, and opportunities. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(11), 1021–1022. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3191

140.

Wilkie

Thompson

Cranner

Ginty

(2020). Attention restoration theory as a framework for analysis of tweets about urban green space: A case study. Landscape Research, 45(6), 777–788. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2020.1738363

141.

Wilmer

H. H.

Sherman

L. E.

Chein

J. M.

(2017). Smartphones and cognition: A review of research exploring the links between mobile technology habits and cognitive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00605

142.

Wilson

E. O.

(1984). Biophilia. Harvard University Press.

143.

Winkel

Saegert

Evans

G. W.

(2009). An ecological perspective on theory, methods, and analysis in environmental psychology: Advances and challenges. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.02.005

144.

Wooldridge

J. M.

(2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data (2nd ed.). The MIT Press.

145.

Wyles

K. J.

White

M. P.

Hattam

Pahl

King

Austen

(2019). Are some natural environments more psychologically beneficial than others? The importance of type and quality on connectedness to nature and psychological restoration. Environment and Behavior, 51(2), 111–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517738312

146.

Zaradic

P. A.

Pergams

O. R. W.

(2007). Videophilia: Implications for Childhood Development and Conservation. 20.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.04 MB

0.08 MB