The function of sensory abilities in personal space research has been all but neglected. Elderly people experience a decline in sensory functioning as a result of the aging process or illness. Vision, hearing, and mobility were examined in relation to an elderly sample's perception of strength and aggression and established interpersonal distance. Results indicate that age, gender, and mobility play an important role in interpersonal distance. Methodological findings offer insights for future studies in personal space research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bailey, K. G., Caffrey, J. V., & Hartnett, J. J. (1976). Body size as implied threat: Effects on personal space and person perception. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 43, 223-230.
2.
Brady, A. T., & Walker, M. B. (1978). Interpersonal distance as a function of situationally induced anxiety. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 127-133.
3.
Burgoon, J. K. (1991). Relational message interpretations of touch, conversational distance, and posture. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 15(4), 233-259.
4.
Caplan, M. E., & Goldman, M. (1981). Personal space violations as a function of height. Journal of Social Psychology, 114, 167-171.
5.
Carpman, J. R., & Grant, N. A. (1993). Design that cares: Planning health facilities for patients and visitors. Chicago: American Hospital Publishing.
6.
Dosey, M. A., & Meisels, M. (1969). Personal space and self-protection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11(2), 93-97.
7.
Drickamer, L. C., & Vessey, S. H. (1992). Animal behavior. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
8.
Duke, M. P., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (1972). A new measure and social-learning model for interpersonal distance. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 6, 119-132.
9.
Ferrini, A. F., & Ferrini, R. L. (1993). Health in the later years. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
10.
Fozard, J. L. (1990). Vision and hearing in aging. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook on the psychology of aging (3rd ed.). Boston: Academic Press.
11.
Greenberg, E., Aronow, E., & Rauchway, A. (1977). Inkblot content and interpersonal distance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 882-887.
12.
Hall, E. T. (1963). A system of the notation of proxemic behavior. American Anthropologist, 65(5), 1003-1026.
13.
Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
14.
Hall, E. T. (1968). Proxemics. Current Anthropologist, 9(2-3), 83-108.
15.
Hartnett, J. J., Bailey, K. G., & Hartley, C. S. (1974). Body height, position, and sex as determinants of personal space. Journal of Psychology, 87, 129-136.
16.
Hayduk, L. A., & Mainprize, S. (1980). Personal space of the blind. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43(2), 216-223.
17.
Hediger, H. P. (1961). The evolution of territorial behavior. In S. L. Washburn (Ed.), Social life of early man. New York: Wennergren Foundation.
18.
Hiatt, L. G. (1981). Color in environments for older people. Nursing Homes, 30, 18-22.
19.
Hiatt, L. G. (1993). Nursing home renovation designed for reform. Boston: Butterworth Architecture.
20.
Holmes, G. E., Karst, R. H., & Erhart, S. A. (1990). Proxemics and physical disability: Etiology and interactional barriers. Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 20(1), 25-31.
21.
Horowitz, J. J., Duff, D. F., & Stratton, L. O. (1964). Body buffer zone: Exploration of personal space. Archives of General Psychiatry, 11(6), 651-656.
22.
Howell, W. C. (1997). Forward, perspectives, and prospectives. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of human factors and the older adult. Boston: Academic Press.
23.
Kaplan, S. (1972). Adaptation, structure and knowledge: A biological perspective. Proceedings of the Environmental Design Research Association/3AR8 Conference, Los Angeles, CA.
24.
Kaplan, S. (1982). Cognition and environment: Functioning in an uncertain world. New York: Praeger.
25.
Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher's handbook. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
26.
Kilbury, R., Bordieri, J., & Wong, H. (1996). Impact of physical disability and gender on personal space. Journal of Rehabilitation, 62(2), 59-64.
27.
Kline, D. W., & Scialfa, C. T. (1997). Sensory and perceptual functioning: Basic research and human factors implications. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of human factors and the older adult. Boston: Academic Press.
28.
Kroemer, K. H. E. (1997). Anthropometry and biomechanics. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of human factors and the older adult. Boston: Academic Press.
29.
Lawton, M. P. & Nahemow, L. (1973). Ecology and the aging process. In C. Eisdorfer & M. P. Lawton (Eds.), Psychology of adult development and aging (pp. 619-674). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
30.
Mallenby, T. W., & Mallenby, R. G. (1975). The personal space of hard-of-hearing children after extended contact with “normals.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 253-257.
31.
Panero, J., & Zelnik, M. (1979). Human dimension and interior space. New York: Whitney Library of Design.
32.
Patterson, M. L., & Sechrest, L. B. (1970). Interpersonal distance and impression formation. Journal of Personality, 38, 160-165.
33.
Phillips, J. R. (1979). An exploration of perception of body boundary, personal space, and body size in elderly persons. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 48, 299-308.
34.
Rogers, W. A. (1997). Individual differences, aging, and human factors: An overview. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers (Eds.), Handbook of human factors and the older adult. Boston: Academic Press.
35.
Sanders, J. L. (1976). Relationship of personal space to body image boundary definiteness. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 478-481.
36.
Sanders, M. S., & McCormick, E. J. (1993a). Auditory, tactual, and olfactory displays. In Human factors in engineering and design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
37.
Sanders, M. S., & McCormick, E. J. (1993b). Visual displays of dynamic information. In Human factors in engineering and design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
38.
Sanders, M. S., & McCormick, E. J. (1993c). Human factors and systems. In Human factors in engineering and design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
39.
Schaie, K. W., Campbell, R. T., Meredith, W., & Rawlings, S. C. (1988). Methodological issues in aging research. New York: Springer.
40.
Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space: The behavioral basis of design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
41.
Stevens, K., & Clark, D. (1987). A pilot study on the effect of visible stigma on personal space. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 18, 52-54.
42.
Worthington, M. E. (1974). Personal space as a function of stigma effect. Environment and Behavior, 6(3), 289-294.
