Urban schools have historically struggled to create engaging learning environments for students. One of the emerging answers to this educational conundrum is the development of more personalized learning environments. Such environments draw on the natural interests of students but contextualize those interests within demanding academic structures. This article describes the historical context confronting urban educators and one of the emerging solutions: early colleges.
Berman, P., & Nelson, B. ( 1996). Replication: Adapt or fail. In research on innovation in State and Local Government. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
2.
Bracey, G.W. ( 1997). Setting the record straight: Responses to misconceptions about public education in the United States. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development .
3.
Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., & Cocking, R.R. ( 1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
4.
Brown, A.L. ( 1975). The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10, pp. 103-152). New York: Academic Press.
5.
Case, R. ( 1992). The mind’s staircase: Exploring the conceptual underpinning of children’s thought and knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
Chall, J.S. ( 2000). The academic achievement challenge: What really works in the classroom?New York: Guilford .
7.
City, E.A., Elmore, R.F., Fiarman, S.E., & Teitel, L. ( 2009). Instructional rounds in education: A network approach to improving teaching and learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Press.
8.
Darling-Hammond, L. ( 1997). School reform at the crossroads: Confronting the central issues of teaching. Educational Policy, 11, 151-166.
9.
Finn, C.E., Jr. ( 2008). Troublemaker: A personal history of school reform since Sputnik. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
10.
Fullan, M. ( 1991). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers’ College Press.
11.
Galloway, C.M. ( 1970). Teaching is communicating: Nonverbal language in the classroom. Association for Student Teaching, Bulletin No. 29.
12.
Gardner, H. ( 1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books .
13.
Gelman, R., & Gallistel, C.R. (1978). The child’s understanding of numbers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14.
Goldberger, S. ( 2007). Doing the math: What it means to double the number of low-income college graduates. In N. Hoffman , J.Vargas, A. Venezia, & M.S. Miller ( Eds. ), Minding the gap (pp . 27-40). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
15.
Herrington, C., & Cistone, P. ( 1994). Educational reform in Florida: Context, substance and politics. International Journal of Education Reform, 3, 264-278.
16.
Hoffman, N., Vargas, J., Venezia, A., & Miller, M.S. ( 2007). Minding the gap: Why integrating high school with college makes sense and how to do it. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
17.
Howell, W.G., & Peterson, P.E. (2002). The education gap: Vouchers and urban schools. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
18.
Ladson-Billings, G. ( 1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 465-491.
19.
Linberg, M. ( 1980). The role of knowledge structure in the ontogeny of learning . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 401-410.
20.
Newman, J.W. ( 1998). America’s teachers: An introduction to education . New York: Addison Wesley Longman .
21.
Piaget, J. ( 1952). The language and thought of the child. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
22.
Resnick, D.P., & Resnick, L.B. ( 1977). The nature of literacy: An historical exploration. Harvard Educational Review, 47, 370-385.