This article reviews several recent applications of transformational mnemonic strategy research with retarded subjects. “Transformational” in this context refers to transforming stimuli into more meaningful representations to enhance recall. Although such research is in its infancy, recent findings suggest that such strategies have great potential in enhancing the learning of concrete and abstract native-language vocabulary, numbered or ordered information, and digit series. Implications for research and practice are given.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AtkinsonR. C. (1975). Mnemotechnics in second language learning. American Psychologist, 30, 821–828.
2.
BaumeisterA. A., & KellasG. (1971). Process variables in the paired-associate learning of retardates. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 5) (pp. 221–270). New York: Academic Press.
3.
BorkowskiJ. G., & WanschuraP. B. (1974). Mediational processes in the retarded. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 7) (pp 7–50). New York: Academic Press.
4.
ButterfieldE. C., WamboldC., & BelmontJ. M. (1973). On the theory and practice of improving short-term memory. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 77, 654–659.
5.
DettermanD. K. (1979). Memory in the mentally retarded. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency (2nd ed) (pp. 727–760). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6.
GerstenR. (1985). Direct instruction with special education students: A review of evaluation research. The Journal of Special Education, 19, 41–58.
7.
JensenA. R., & RohwerW. D. (1963). Verbal mediation in paired-associate and serial learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 346–352.
8.
KellasG., & ButterfieldE. C. (1970). Response familiarization and the paired-associate performance of non-institutionalized retarded and normal children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 75, 81–87.
9.
KramerJ. J., NagleR. J., & EngleR. W. (1980). Recent advances in mnemonic strategy training with mentally retarded persons: Implication for educational practice. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 85, 306–314.
10.
LaufenbergR. (1985). Effects of a transformational imagery strategy to facilitate digit span recall of mildly handicapped students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, Logan.
11.
LaufenbergR., & ScruggsT. E. (1986). Effects of a transformational imagery strategy to facilitate digit span recall of mildly handicapped students. Psychological Reports, 58, 811–820.
12.
LebratoM. T., & EllisN. R. (1974). Imagery mediation in paired associate learning by retarded and non-retarded subjects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 78, 704–713.
13.
LevinJ. R. (1983). Pictorial strategies for school learning: Practical illustrations. In PressleyM. & LevinJ. R. (Eds.), Cognitive strategy research: Educational applications, (pp. 213–237). New York: Springer-Verlag.
14.
LevinJ. R., DretzkeB. J., McCormickC. B., ScruggsT. E., McGivernJ. E., & MastropieriM. A. (1983). Learning via mnemonic pictures: Analysis of the presidential process. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 3, 161–173.
15.
LevinJ. R., McCormickC. B., MillerG. E., BerryJ. K., & PressleyM. (1982). Mnemonic vs. nonmnemonic vocabulary learning strategies for children. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 121–136.
16.
MartinC. L. (1978). Mediational processes in the retarded: Implications for teaching reading. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 9) (pp. 66–84). New York: Academic.
17.
MartinC. J., BoersmaF. J., & BulgarellaR. (1968). Verbalization of associative strategies by normal and retarded children. The Journal of General Psychology, 78, 209–218.
18.
MastropieriM. A., ScruggsT. E., & LevinJ. R. (in press a). Direct instruction vs. mnemonic instruction: Relative benefits for exceptional learners. Journal of Special Education.
19.
MastropieriM. A., ScruggsT. E., & LevinJ. R. (in press b). Mnemonic instruction in special education. In McDanielM., & PressleyM. (Eds.), Imaginal and mnemonic processes. New York: Springer-Verlag.
20.
MastropieriM. A., ScruggsT. E., & LevinJ. R. (1985). Maximizing what exceptional students can learn: A review of keyword and other mnemonic strategy research. Remedial and Special Education, 6(2), 39–45.
21.
OdomP. B., & NesbitN. H. (1974). Some processes in children's comprehension of linguistically and visually depicted relationships. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 17, 399–408.
22.
PrehmH. J., & MayfieldS. (1970). Paired-associate learning and retention in retarded and non-retarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 75, 622–625.
23.
PrehmH. J., & StinnettR. D. (1970). Effects of learning method on learning stage in retarded and non-retarded adolescents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 75, 319–322.
24.
PressleyM., & LevinJ. R. (in press). Elaborative learning strategies for the inefficient learner. In CeciS. J. (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neurological aspects of learning disabilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
25.
PressleyM., LevinJ. R., & DelaneyH. D. (1982). The mnemonic keyword method. Review of Educational Research, 52, 61–91.
26.
RohwerW. D. (1968). Mental mnemonics in early learning. Teachers College Record, 70, 213–226.
27.
ScruggsT. E., MastropieriM. A., & LevinJ. R. (1985). Vocabulary acquisition of retarded students under direct and mnemonic instruction. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89, 546–551.
28.
ScruggsT. E., MastropieriM. A., LevinJ. R., McLooneB. B., GaffneyJ. S., & PraterM. (1985). Increasing content-area learning: A comparison of mnemonic and visual-spatial display instruction. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 18–31.
29.
SpitzH. H. (1966). The role of input organization in the learning and memory of mental retardates. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. (Vol. 2) (pp. 29–56). New York: Academic Press.
30.
SpitzH. (1973). Consolidating facts into the schematized learning and memory system of educable retardates. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 6) (pp. 149–166). New York: Academic Press.
31.
TaylorS. C. (1981). The keyword mnemonic method for teaching vocabulary: Its use by learning disabled children with memory difficulties. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater.
32.
TaylorA. M., & TurnureJ. E. (1979). Imagery and verbal elaboration with retarded children: Effects on learning and memory. In EllisN. R. (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency, psychological theory and research (2nd ed.), (pp. 659–697). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
TolfaD., ScruggsT. E., & MastropieriM. A. (in press). Extended mnemonmic instruction with learning disabled students. Journal of Educational Psychology.
34.
UnderwoodB. J., & SchultzR. W. (1960). Meaningfulness and verbal learning. New York: Lippincott.
35.
YatesF. A. (1966). The art of memory. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
36.
YuenP. C. (1985). Mnemonic instruction with mentally retarded adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
