Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Recently, much attention has emphasized understanding the negative health outcomes of working in corrections; however, understanding correctional staff victimization has largely been neglected. Therefore, we aim to address this gap in the literature by using target congruence theory to better understand risk of physical assault and verbal and sexual harassment of institutional correctional staff. Using data from a statewide random sample of correctional staff, analyses reveal that target vulnerability is the most useful in understanding correctional staff assault and harassment. These findings indicate that mental health, specifically anxiety and depression, place correctional staff at a higher risk for victimization and staff who engaged in hostile behavior were at a higher risk for harassment.

Keywords

correctional facilities crime prevention mental health theory victimology

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allison

P. D.

(1999). Logistic regression using the SAS system: Theory and application. SAS Institute.

Anderson

(1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. W. W. Norton.

Augustine

M. C.

Wilcox

Ousey

G. C.

Clayton

R. R.

(2002). Opportunity theory and adolescent school-based victimization. Violence and Victims, 17(2), 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.17.2.233.33643

Briere

(2011). Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 (TSI-2). Psychological Assessment Resources.

Brower

(2013). Correctional Officer Wellness and Safety Literature Review. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Diagnostic Center.

Burdett

Gouliquer

Poulin

(2018). Culture of corrections: The experiences of women correctional officers. Feminist Criminology, 13(3), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085118767974

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities: Table R100. Incidence rates for nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses involving days away from work per 10,000 full-time workers by occupation and selected events or exposures leading to injury or illness, private industry, 2020. https://www.bls.gov/web/osh/cd_r100.htm

Burton

A. L.

Jonson

C. L.

Petrich

D. M.

Miller

W. T.

(2023). Nefarious and disconcerting motivations for choosing a correctional officer position: A deviant case analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 50(10), 1506–1525. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548231187415

Butler

H. D.

Tasca

Zhang

Carpenter

(2019). A systematic and meta-analytic review of the literature on correctional officers: Identifying new avenues for research. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.12.002

10.

Cathcart

Jones

(2019). The Dignity Assault Initiative implementation within the Michigan Corrections Organization: Staff acceptance and application of a contemporary policy approach. Corrections: Policy, Practice and Research, 6(3), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/23774657.2019.1615394

11.

Choi

Kruis

N. E.

Kim

(2020). The impact of occupational characteristics and victimization on job burnout among South Korean correctional officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(7), 905–923. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820923024

12.

Comrey

A. L.

Lee

H. B.

(1992). A first course in factor analysis (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.

13.

Denhof

M. D.

Spinaris

C. G.

(2016). Prevalence of trauma-related health conditions in correctional officers: A profile of Michigan Corrections Organization members. Desert Waters Correctional Outreach. https://www.mco-seiu.org/files/2016/05/MCO-Paper_FINAL.pdf

14.

Ellison

J. M.

Gainey

(2020). An opportunity model of safety risks among jail officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 66, Article 101632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101632

15.

Ellison

J. M.

Jaegers

L. A.

(2022). Suffering in silence: Violence exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder among jail correctional officers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 64(1), e28–e35. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002432

16.

Elvey

McNeeley

(2019). Target congruence as a means of understanding risk of intimate partner violence: A comparison of male and female college students in the United States. Crime & Delinquency, 65(13), 1823–1849. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718770686

17.

Elvey

Reyns

B. W.

McNeeley

(2018). Stalking on campus: A gendered perspective on target congruence and opportunity. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(8), 1308–1327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818773792

18.

Ferdik

Gist

J. T. A.

Smith

H. P.

(2024). Correctional officer responses to workplace trauma: Refining the Vicarious Trauma Toolkit. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 51(8), 1275–1294. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548241241012

19.

Ferdik

Smith

H. P.

(2017). Corrections white paper: Correctional officer safety and wellness literature synthesis. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

20.

Ferraresso

Elling Peterson

(2025). It’s a dangerous job! A systematic review of the predictors of correctional officer victimization by incarcerated individuals in U.S. prisons and jails. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251320991

21.

Finkelhor

Asdigian

N. L.

(1996). Risk factors for youth victimization beyond a lifestyle/routine activities theory approach. Violence and Victims, 11(1), 3–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.11.1.3

22.

Finn

(2000). Addressing correctional officer stress: Programs and strategies. Issues and practices. Department of Justice. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED449457

23.

French

S. A.

Gendreau

(2006). Reducing prison misconducts: What works! Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33(2), 185–218. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0093854805284406

24.

Gordon

J. A.

Moriarty

L. J.

Grant

P. H.

(2003). Juvenile correctional officers’ perceived fear and risk of victimization: Examining individual and collective levels of victimization in two juvenile correctional centers in Virginia. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(1), 62–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854802239163

25.

Gordon

J. A.

Proulx

Grant

P. H.

(2013). Trepidation among the “keepers”: Gendered perceptions of fear and risk of victimization among corrections officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(2), 245–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-012-9167-1

26.

Goulette

Denney

A. S.

Crow

M. S.

Ferdik

F. V.

(2022). “Anything can happen at any time”: Perceived causes of correctional officer injuries. Criminal Justice Review, 47(1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016820952521

27.

Grasmick

H. G.

Tittle

C. R.

Bursik

R. J.

Arneklev

B. J.

(1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427893030001002

28.

Groeneveld

Gerrard

B. A.

(1985). Short‑term human relations training for corrections personnel. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 27(1), 97–101.

29.

Hair

J. F.

Tatham

R. L.

Anderson

R. E.

Black

(1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall.

30.

Isenhardt

Hostettler

(2020). Inmate violence and correctional staff burnout: The role of sense of security, gender, and job characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(1–2), 173–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516681156

31.

Janoka

Scheckenbach

(1978). Empathy training with inmates and staff utilizing the Carkhuff model. Corrective and Social Psychiatry and Journal of Behavior Technology, Methods and Therapy, 24(1), 6–12.

32.

Konda

Tiesman

Reichard

Hartlet

(2013). U.S. correctional officers killed or injured on the job. Corrections Today, 75(5), 122–123. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699466/

33.

Kratcoski

P. C.

(1988). The implications of research explaining prison violence and disruption. Federal Probation, 52(1), 27–32. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/fedpro52&id=29

34.

Lambert

E. G.

Keena

L. D.

Haynes

S. H.

May

Leone

M. C.

(2020). Predictors of job stress among Southern correctional staff. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 31(2), 309–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403419829211

35.

Liebling

Price

Shefer

(2011). The prison officer (2nd ed.). Willan Publishing.

36.

Light

S. C.

(1991). Assaults on prison officers: Interactional themes. Justice Quarterly, 8(2), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829100091021

37.

Lombardo

(1989). Guards imprisoned: Correctional officers at work (2nd ed.). Anderson Publishing Company.

38.

Macmillan

(2001). Violence and the life course: The consequences of victimization for personal and social development. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.1

39.

McNeeley

(2021). Situational risk factors for inmate-on-staff assault. The Prison Journal, 101(3), 352–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/00328855211010478

40.

McNeeley

Donley

(2021). Crisis Intervention Team training in a correctional setting: Examining compliance, mental health referrals, and use of force. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 48(2), 195–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820959394

41.

McNeeley

Overstreet

(2018). Lifestyle-routine activities, neighborhood context, and ethnic hate crime victimization. Violence and Victims, 33(5), 932–948. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-17-00136

42.

Miller

W. T.

Burton

A. L.

Jonson

C. L.

Burton

V. S.

Adkins

P. A.

(2023). A multi-state outcome evaluation of correctional officer training academies: A pretest-posttest design. Justice Evaluation Journal. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751979.2023.2220370

43.

Mullins

C. W.

Wright

Jacobs

B. A.

(2004). Gender, streetlife and criminal retaliation. Criminology, 42(4), 911–940. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00540.x

44.

Norris

F. H.

Kaniasty

(1994). Psychological distress following criminal victimization in the general population: Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and prospective analyses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.62.1.111

45.

Popp

A. M.

(2012). The effects of exposure, proximity, and capable guardians on the risk of bullying victimization. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10(4), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204011434833

46.

Regehr

Carey

Wagner

Alden

L. E.

Buys

Corneil

Fyfe

Fraess-Phillips

Krutop

Matthews

Randall

White

(2021). Prevalence of PTSD, depression, and anxiety disorders in correctional officers: A systematic review. Corrections: Policy, Practice and Research, 6(3), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/23774657.2019.1641765

47.

Ricciardelli

Power

N. G.

(2020). How “conditions of confinement” impact “conditions of employment”: The work-related well-being of provincial correctional officers in Atlantic Canada. Violence and Victims, 35(1), 88–107. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-18-00081

48.

Ricciardelli

Power

Medeiros

D. S.

(2018). Correctional officers’ experiences of mental health and wellness programs. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(8), 1215–1233.

49.

Schreck

C. J.

(1999). Criminal victimization and low self-control: An extension and test of a general theory of crime. Justice Quarterly, 16(3), 633–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829900094291

50.

Semenza

D. C.

Testa

Turanovic

J. J.

(2021). Trajectories of violent victimization over the life course: Implications for mental and physical health. Advances in Life Course Research, 50, Article 100436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2021.100436

51.

Sorensen

J. R.

Cunningham

M. D.

Vigen

M. P.

Woods

S. O.

(2011). Serious assaults on prison staff: A descriptive analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(2), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.01.002

52.

Sparks

J. R.

Bottoms

A. E.

Hay

(1996). Prisons and the problems of order. Oxford University Press.

53.

Spinaris

C. G.

(2014). Occupational stressors in corrections work: Annotated bibliography. National Institute of Corrections. www.nicic.gov/Library/029743

54.

Spinaris

C. G.

Denhof

M. D.

Kellaway

J. A.

(2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder in United States corrections professionals: Prevalence and impact on health and functioning. Office of Justice Programs. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-united-states-corrections

55.

Steiner

Wooldredge

(2015). Individual and environmental sources of work stress among prison officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(8), 800–818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854814564463

56.

Steiner

Wooldredge

(2017). Individual and environmental influences on prison officer safety. Justice Quarterly, 34(2), 324–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2016.1164883

57.

Stevens

J. P.

(1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.

58.

Sween

Reyns

B. W.

(2017). An empirical test of target congruence theory on intimate partner violence. Deviant Behavior, 38(1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1191914

59.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Pearson.

60.

Taxman

F. S.

Gordon

J. A.

(2009). Do fairness and equity matter? An examination of organizational justice among correctional officers in adult prisons. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(7), 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809335039

61.

Waldner

L. K.

Berg

(2008). Explaining antigay violence using target congruence: An application of revised routine activities theory. Violence and Victims, 23(3), 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.267

62.

Walters

(2022). Getting to the source: How inmates and other staff contribute to correctional officer stress. Journal of Crime and Justice, 45(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2020.1862696

63.

Western

(2006). Punishment and inequality in America. Russell Sage Foundation.

64.

Wortley

(2002). Situational prison control: Crime prevention in correctional institutions. Cambridge University Press.

65.

Zavala

(2020). When the cop is the victim: A test of target congruence theory on intimate partner violence victimization experienced by police officers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(17–18), 3622–3642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517709801

66.

Zavala

Whitney

(2019). Target congruence theory and Latino youth victimization. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 17(2), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2019.1584137

Which CO Should We Attack? Applying Target Congruence to Correctional Staff Assault

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References