The link between callous-unemotional traits and offending has been consistently documented in a wide variety of samples worldwide. Despite the wealth of literature produced on this topic, much remains unknown, particularly surrounding the functional form of the association. The current study addresses this gap in the literature by examining the functional form of the associations between callous-unemotional traits and offending. Using data drawn from Add Health, the models revealed that the associations between callous-unemotional traits and offending are likely quadratic. However, the associations may be sex specific as the associations were quadratic for only females and linear for males. Additionally, the presence of anxiety symptoms was revealed to significantly impact the functional form of the association.
AgnewR. (2005). Why do criminals offend?Roxbury Publishing Company.
2.
AgnewR.BrezinaT.WrightJ. P.CullenF. T. (2006). Strain, personality traits, and delinquency: Extending general strain theory. Criminology, 40(1), 43–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00949.x
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual (5th ed.).
4.
Austin-KetchT. L.ViolantiJ.FekedulegnD.AndrewM. E.BurchfieldC. M.HartleyT. A. (2012). Addictions and the criminal justice system, what happens on the other side? Post-traumatic stress symptoms and cortisol measures in a police cohort. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 23(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.3109/10884602.2011.645255
5.
BarryC. T.FrickP. J.DeShazoT. M.McCoyM.EllisM.LoneyB. R. (2000). The importance of callous-unemotional traits for extending the concept of psychopathy to children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.335
6.
Baskin-SommersA. R.WallerR.FishA. M.HydeL. W. (2015). Callous-unemotional traits trajectories interact with earlier conduct problems and executive control to predict violence and substance use among high risk male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1529–1541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0041-8
7.
BekbolatskyzyD. S.YerenatovnaD. R.MaratulyY. A.MakhatovnaA. G.BeaverK. M. (2019). Aging out of adolescent delinquency: Results from a longitudinal sample of youth and young adults. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crimjus.2018.09.001
8.
BennettD. C.KerigP. K. (2014). Investigating the construct of trauma-related acquired callousness among delinquent youth: Differences in emotion processing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(4), 415–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21931
9.
BezdjianS.RaineA.BakerL. A.LynamD. R. (2011). Psychopathic personality in children: Genetic and environmental contributions. Psychological Medicine, 41(3), 589–600. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000966
10.
BoduszekD.DebowskaA.WillmottD. (2017). Latent profile analysis of psychopathic traits among homicide, general violent, property, and white-collar offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 51, 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crimjus.2017.06.001
11.
ByrdA. L.KahnR. E.PardiniD. A. (2013). A validation of the inventory of callous-unemotional traits in a community sample of young adult males. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35, 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-012-9315-4
12.
CarvalhoM.FariaM.ConceiçãoA.De MatosM. G.EssauC. A. (2017). Callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 34(2). https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000449
13.
ChristianR. E.FrickP. J.HillN. L.TylerL.FrazerD. R. (1997). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children: II. Implications for subtyping children with conduct problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 233–241. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199702000-00014
14.
CicchettiD. (2016). Developmental psychopathology, developmental neuroscience (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
15.
CicchettiD.RogoschF. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8(4), 597–600. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007318
16.
ColinsO. F.Van DammeL.FantiK. A.AndershedH. (2017). The prospective usefulness of callous-unemotional traits and conduct disorder in predicting treatment engagement among detained girls. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0869-7
17.
ColinsO. F.VermeirenR. R. J. (2013). The usefulness of DSM-IV and DSM-5 conduct disorder subtyping in detained adolescents. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201(9), 736–743. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3182a20e94
18.
CraigS. G.GoulterN.MorettiM. M. (2021). A systematic review of primary and secondary callous-unemotional traits and psychopathy variants in youth. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 24, 65–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-020-00329-x
19.
CraigS. G.MorettiM. M. (2019). Profiles of primary and secondary callous-unemotional features in youth: The role of emotion regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 31(4), 1489–1500. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001062
20.
DaddsM. R.FraserJ.FrostA.HawesD. J. (2005). Disentangling the underlying dimensions of psychopathy and conduct problems in childhood: A community study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.400
21.
DaddsM. R.HunterK.HawesD. J.FrostA. D. J.VassalloS.BunnP.MerzS.El MasryY. (2008). A measure of cognitive and affective empathy in children using parent ratings. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-007-0075-4
22.
EllisL.FarringtonD. P.HoskinA. W. (2019). Handbook of crime correlates. Academic Press.
23.
EmeR. (2020). Life course persistent antisocial behavior silver anniversary. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 50, Article 101344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.101344
24.
EnebrinkP.AndershedH.LångströmN. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct problems. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59(6), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480500360690
25.
FalcónA. K.DobbinsA. E.StickleT. R. (2021). Gendered associations among callous-unemotional traits, emotion regulation, and antisocial behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 179, 110944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110944
26.
FantiK. A.ColinsO. F.AndershedH.SikkiM. (2017). Stability and change in callous-unemotional traits: Longitudinal associations with potential individual and contextual risk and protective factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000143
27.
FranceK. G.HudsonS. M. (1993). The conduct disorders and the juvenile sex offender. In BarbareeH. E.MarshallW. L.HudsonS. M. (Eds.), The juvenile sex offender (pp. 225–234). Guilford Press.
28.
FrickP. J. (2012). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder: Implications for future directions in research, assessment, and treatment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 378–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2012.664815
29.
FrickP. J.HareR. D. (2001). Antisocial process screening device: APSD. Springer.
30.
FrickP. J.MoffittT. E. (2010). A proposal to the DSM-V childhood disorders and the ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders work groups to include a specifier to the diagnosis of conduct disorder based on the presence of callous-unemotional traits. American Psychiatric Association.
31.
FrickP. J.StickleT. R.DandreauxD. M.FarrellJ. M.KimonisE. R. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits in predicting the severity and stability of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 471–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-5728-9
32.
GeerlingsY.AsscherJ. J.StamsG.-J. J. M.AssinkM. (2020). The association between psychopathy and delinquency in juveniles: A three-level meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 50, Article 101342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.101342
33.
GillA. D.StickleT. R. (2016). Affective differences between psychopathy variants and genders in justice-involved youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(2), 295–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-9990-1
34.
GottfredsonM. R.HirschiT. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
35.
GrettonH. M.McBrideM.HareR. D.O’ShaughnessyR.KumkaG. (2001). Psychopathy and recidivism in adolescent sex offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28(4), 427–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/009385480102800403
36.
HalevyR.ShalviS.VerschereB. (2014). Being honest about dishonesty: Correlating self-reports and actual lying. Human Communication Reseach, 40(1), 54–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12019
37.
HareR. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths amongst us. Guilford.
38.
HarrisK. M.FloreyF.TaborJ.BearmanP. S.JonesJ.UdryJ. R. (2009). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health: Research design. Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina. Retrieved from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.
39.
HarteJ. (2007). Human population as a dynamic factor in environmental degradation. Population and Environment, 28, 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-007-0048-3
40.
HaynieD. L. (2001). Delinquent peers revisited: Does network structure matter?American Journal of Sociology, 106(4), 1013–1057. https://doi.org/10.1086/320298
41.
HowardA. L.KimonisE. R.MuñozL. C.FrickP. J. (2012). Violence exposure mediates the relation between callous-unemotional traits and offending patterns in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1237–1247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9647-2
42.
JambroesT.JansenL. M. C.VermeirenR. R. J. M.DoreleijersT. A. H.ColinsO. F.PopmaA. (2016). The clinical usefulness of the new LPE specifier for subtyping adolescents with conduct disorder in the DSM 5. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 891–902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-015-0812-3
43.
JoynerB.BeaverK. M. (2023a). Examining the potential influence of violence exposure on the link between callous-unemotional traits and delinquent and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. Crime & Delinquency, 69(6–7), 1282–1311. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287231152173
44.
JoynerB.BeaverK. M. (2023b). Examining the potential association between callous-unemotional traits and victimization: A behavioral genetic analysis. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 9(3), 507–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-023-00228-z
45.
Joyner-CarpaniniB.BeaverK. M. (2024). Trait-Based Explanations of the Victim/Offender Overlap. Journal of Developmental and Life Course Criminology, 10, 193–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-024-00250-9
46.
KahnR. E.FrickP. J.YoungstromE. A.Kogos YoungstromJ.FeenyN. C.FindlingR. L. (2013). Distinguishing primary and secondary variants of callous-unemotional traits among adolescents in a clinic-referred sample. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 966–978. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032880
47.
KarpmanB. (1941). On the need of separating psychopathy into two distinct clinical types: The symptomatic and the idiopathy. Journal of Criminal Psychopathology, 3, 112–137.
48.
KimonisE.FrickP.MuñozL.AucoinK. (2008). Callous-unemotional traits and the emotional processing of distress cues in detained boys: Testing the moderating role of aggression, exposure to community violence, and histories of abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 20(2), 569–589. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940800028X
49.
KimonisE. R.FantiK. A.IsomaZ.DonoghueK. (2013). Maltreatment profiles among incarcerated boys with callous-unemotional traits. Child Maltreatment, 18(2), 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559513483002
50.
KimonisE. R.FrickP. J.FazekasH.LoneyB. R. (2006). Psychopathy, aggression, and the processing of emotional stimuli in non-referred girls and boys. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 24(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.668
51.
KimonisE. R.SkeemJ. L.CauffmanE.DmitrievaJ. (2011). Are secondary variants of juvenile psychopathy more reactively violent and less psychosocially mature than primary variants?Law and Human Behavior, 35(5), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-010-9243-3
52.
KrohnM.D.ThornberryT.P.GibsonC.L.BaldwinJ.M. (2010). The development and impact of self-report measures of crime and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 26, 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-010-9119-1
53.
KruegerR. F.SchmutteP. S.CaspiA.MoffittT. E.CampbellK.SilvaP. A. (1994). Personality traits are linked to crime among men and women: Evidence from a birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(2), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.2.328
54.
LatzmanR. D.MalikinaM. V.HechtL. K.LilienfeldS. O.ChanW. Y. (2016). The contribution of personality and refugee camp experience to callous and unemotional traits among immigrant adolescents in the United States: Implications for the DSM-5 “limited prosocial emotions” specifier. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 47, 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0558-7
55.
MarkowitzA. J.RyanR. M.MarshA. A. (2015). Neighborhood income and the expression of callous-unemotional traits. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 1103–1118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0663-3
56.
MarshA. A.FingerE. C.SchechterJ. C.JurkowitzI. T. N.ReidM. E.BlairR. J. R. (2011). Adolescents with psychopathic traits report reductions in physiological responses to fear. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 834–841. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02353.x
57.
MearsD. P.CochranJ. C.BeaverK. M. (2013). Self-control theory and nonlinear effects on offending. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29, 447–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-012-9187-5
58.
MertonR. K. (1945). Sociological theory. American Journal of Sociology, 50(6), 462–473.
59.
Muñoz CentifantiL. C.ModeckK. (2013). Throwing caution to the wind: Callous-unemotional traits and risk taking in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(1), 106–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2012.719460
60.
NwaforC. E.OnyeizugboE. U.AnazonwuC. O. (2015). Does gender moderate the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and physical aggression?The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 18(82), 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2015.86
61.
PinkerS. (2002). The blank slate: The modern denial of human nature. Penguin Group.
62.
PortnoyJ.CuiN.RaineA.FrazierA.Rudo-HuttA. S.LiuJ. (2020). Autonomic nervous system activity and callous-unemotional traits in physically maltreated youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 101, 104308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104308
63.
RayJ. V.FrickP. J.ThorntonL. C.Wall MyersT. D.SteinbergL.CauffmanE. (2017). Callous-unemotional traits predict self-reported offending in adolescent boys: The mediating role of delinquent peers and the moderating role of parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 53(2), 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000210
64.
RhombergL. R.GoodmanJ. E.HaberL. T.DoursonM.AndersenM. E.KlaunigJ. E.MeekB.PriceP. S.McClellanR. O.CohenS. M. (2011). Linear low-dose extrapolation for noncancer health effects is the exception, not the rule. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 41(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3109/10408444.2010.536524
65.
RimaD.TurgumbayevM.AalimkulovY.UseinovaK.BeaverK. M. (2022). Examining the potential association between perceived life expectations and violent behaviors, criminal justice processing, and victimization: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 82, Article 101968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crimjus.2022.101968
66.
RobertsonE. L.FrickP. J.RayJ. V.ThorntonL. C.MyersT. D. W.SteinbergL.CauffmanE. (2018). The association among callous-unemotional traits, worry, and aggression in justice-involved adolescent boys. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(5), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618766351
67.
RydellA.-M.BrockiK. C. (2021). ADHD symptoms and callous-unemotional traits as predictors of violent media use in adolescence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 62(1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12693
68.
SakaiJ. T.Mikulich-GilbertsonS. K.YoungS. E.RheeS. H.McWilliamsS. K.DunnR.Salomonsen-SautelS.ThurstoneC.HopferC. J. (2016). Adolescent male conduct-disordered patients in substance use disorder treatment: Examining the “limited prosocial emotions” specifier. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 25(6), 613–625. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2016.1175983
69.
SchwartzJ. A.BeaverK. M. (2015). A partial test of Moffitt’s developmental taxonomy: Examining the role of genetic risk. Justice Quarterly, 32(5), 768–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.805798
70.
SorensenE. A. (2009). Statistical models and mechanisms for social processes. In HedströmP.WittrockB. (Eds.), Frontiers of sociology (pp. 369–400). Brill.
71.
ThorntonL. C.FrickP. J.RayJ. V.Wall MyersT. D.SteinbergL.CauffmanE. (2019). Risky sex, drugs, sensation seeking, and callous unemotional traits in justice-involved male adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(1), 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1399398
72.
TittleC. R. (1995). Control balance: Towards a general theory of deviance. Routledge.
73.
VaughnM. G.EdensJ. F.HowardM. O.SmithT. S. (2009). An investigation of primary and secondary psychopathy in a statewide sample of incarcerated youth. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7(3), 172–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204009333792
74.
VidingE.KimonisE. (2019). Callous-unemotional traits. In PatrickC. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathology (pp. 144–164). The Guilford Press.
75.
WalkerT. M.RobertsonE. L.FrickP. J.RayJ. V.ThorntonL. C.Wall MyersT. D.SteinbergL.CauffmanE. (2020). Relationships among callous-unemotional traits, future orientation, optimism, and self-esteem in justice-involved adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 2434–2442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01770-w
76.
WallerR.WagnerN. J.BarsteadM. G.SubarA.PetersenJ. L.HydeJ. S.HydeL. W. (2020). A meta-analysis of the associations between callous-unemotional traits and empathy, prosociality, and guilt. Clinical Psychology Review, 75, Article 101809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101809
77.
YildirimB. O. (2016). A treatise on secondary psychopathy: Psychobiological pathways to severe antisociality. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 31, 165–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.09.004
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
