Supporting Victims of Sexual Assault: The Effect of “Real Rape Mythology” and “Worthy Victim” Stereotypes on Police Decisions Regarding Service Referral and Advocate Involvement in Sexual Assault Cases

Abstract

Police undertake a range of decisions following a sexual assault disclosure. Research has not examined the decision to provide service referral information or engage a victim advocate during the formal response. This study used a purposive sample of 436 sexual assault police case files from a large, urban agency to understand how “real rape” mythology and “worthy victim” schemata affected these decisions. Three multivariate binary logistic regression models revealed that visible victim injury and case classifications of family violence increased responding officer service referral. Investigator service referral decreased when victims were women of Color but increased when cases had greater evidentiary strength. Increased victim resistance strategies, training, and investigator service referral increased advocate involvement. Implications and future research are discussed.

Keywords

police officers sexual assault “real rape” mythology service referral victim advocacy

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Belknap

McCall

K. D.

(1994). Woman battering and police referrals. Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, 223–236.

Bostaph

L. G.

King

L. L.

Brady

P. Q.

(2021). How victim credibility and cooperation influence investigative decision-making: Examining DOJ’s gender bias principles for investigating domestic and sexual violence. Policing: An International Journal, 44, 612–627.

Buzawa

E. S.

Hotaling

G. T.

(2006). The impact of relationship status, gender, and minor status in the police response to domestic assaults. Victims and Offenders, 1, 323–360.

Campbell

B. A.

Lapsey

D. S.

Jr. Franklin

C. A.

Garza

A. D.

Goodson

(2023). Police sexual assault investigation training, impulsivity, and officer intentions to arrest and use procedural justice: A randomized experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09572-y.

Campbell

B. A.

Lapsey

D. S.

Jr. Wells

(2020). An evaluation of Kentucky’s sexual assault investigator training: Results from a randomized three-group experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 16, 625–647.

Campbell

(2012). The neurobiology of sexual assault: Implications for first responders in law enforcement, prosecution and victim advocacy. NIJ Research for the Real World Seminar. https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=263040

Campbell

Fehler-Cabral

(2018). Why police “couldn’t or wouldn’t” submit sexual assault kits for forensic DNA testing: A focal concerns theory analysis of untested rape kits. Law & Society Review, 52, 73–105.

Campbell

Wasco

S. M.

Ahrens

C. E.

Sefl

Barnes

H. E.

(2001). Preventing the “Second rape” rape survivors’ experiences with community service providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1239–1259.

Crenshaw

(1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241.

10.

Department of Justice. (2015). Identifying and preventing gender bias in law enforcement response to sexual assault and domestic violence. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-issues-guidance-identifying-and-preventing-gender-bias-law-enforcement.

11.

Diamantopoulos

Sarstedt

Fuchs

Wilczynski

Kaiser

(2012). Guidelines for choosing between multi-item and single-item scales for construct measurement: A predictive validity perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40, 434–449.

12.

Donovan

R. A.

Williams

(2002). Living at the intersection: The effects of racism and sexism on Black rape survivors. Women & Therapy, 25, 95–105.

13.

Du Mont

Miller

K. L.

Myhr

T. L

. (2003). The role of “real rape” and “real victim” stereotypes in the police reporting practices of sexually assaulted women. Violence Against Women, 9, 466–486.

14.

Estrich

(1987). Real rape. Harvard University Press.

15.

Finn

M. A.

Stalans

L. J.

(1995). Police referrals to shelters and mental health treatment: Examining their decision in domestic assault cases. Crime & Delinquency, 41, 467–480.

16.

Fleming

J. C.

Franklin

C. A.

(2021). Predicting police endorsement of myths surrounding intimate partner violence. Journal of Family Violence, 36, 407–416.

17.

Franklin

C. A.

(2005). Male peer support and the police culture: Understanding the resistance and opposition of women in policing. Women & Criminal Justice, 16, 1–25.

18.

Franklin

C. A.

(2008). Women offenders, disparate treatment, and criminal justice: A theoretical, historical, and contemporary overview. Criminal Justice Studies, 28(4), 341–360.

19.

Franklin

C. A.

(2013). Anticipating intimacy or sexual victimization? Danger cue recognition and delayed behavioral responses to a sexually risky scenario. Feminist Criminology, 8, 87–116.

20.

Franklin

C. A.

(2023, May 25). Trauma-informed training and police response to sexual assault [Invited Conference Presentation]. 2023 NIJ National Research Conference: From Evidence to Action, Arlington, VA, United States. https://nij.ojp.gov/events/conference.

21.

Franklin

C. A.

Bouffard

L. A.

Goodson

Garza

A. D.

(2023). Police decisions in a rape scenario: The effect of trauma response, forensic evidence, stranger-perpetrators, and rape mythology. Violence Against Women, 29(15–16), 3024–3049. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012231197556

22.

Franklin

C. A.

Garza

A. D.

(2018). Sexual assault disclosure: The effect of victim race and perpetrator type on empathy, culpability, and service referral for survivors in a hypothetical scenario. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, 2327–2352

23.

Franklin

C. A.

Garza

A. D.

Goodson

Bouffard

L. A.

(2020). Police perceptions of crime victim behaviors: A trend analysis exploring mandatory training and knowledge of sexual and domestic violence survivors’ trauma responses. Crime & Delinquency, 66, 1055–1086.

24.

Freedman

(2013). No turning back: The history of feminism and the future of women. Ballantine Books.

25.

Garza

A. D.

(2022). “Real rape” and “real victims:” Revisiting police decision-making in sexual assault case processing [Doctoral dissertation]. Sam Houston State University.

26.

Garza

A. D.

Franklin

C. A.

(2021). The effect of rape myth endorsement on police response to sexual assault survivors. Violence Against Women, 27, 552–573.

27.

George

S. S.

(2023). Intersecting rape myths with race: Examining race-and ethnicity-specific effects of rape myth factors on police responses to sexual assault. Justice Quarterly. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2023.2263531

28.

Goodson

Garza

A. D.

Franklin

C. A.

(2022). Providing support to victims: Police officers’ service referral provision and advocate involvement in domestic violence incidents. Crime & Delinquency, 68, 80–104.

29.

Goodson

Garza

A. D.

Franklin

C. A.

Updegrove

A. H.

Bouffard

L. A.

(2020). Perceptions of victim advocates and predictors of service referral among law enforcement personnel. Feminist Criminology, 15, 611–633.

30.

Harpe

S. E.

(2015). How to analyze Likert and other rating scale data. Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning, 7, 836–850.

31.

Homat

R. J.

Kennedy

D. B.

(1985). Police perceptions of spouse abuse: A comparison of male and female officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 13, 29–47.

32.

Johnson

A. G.

(1997). The gender knot: Unraveling our patriarchal legacy. Temple University Press.

33.

Kelley

S. M.

Fleming

J. C.

Acquaviva

B. L.

Meeker

K. A.

O’Neal

E. N.

(2021). The sexual stratification hypothesis and prosecuting sexual assault: Is the decision to file charges influenced by the victim-suspect racial-ethnic dyad? Crime & Delinquency, 67, 1165–1194.

34.

Kernic

M. A.

Bonomi

A. E.

(2007). Female victims of domestic violence: Which victims do police refer to crisis intervention? Violence and Victims, 22, 463–473.

35.

Kettrey

H. H.

Davis

A. J.

Liberman

Seeman

(2022). Taking the test: Participation in a sexual assault medical forensic exam as an indicator of victim cooperation with the criminal justice system and a predictor of suspect arrest. Justice Quarterly, 40, 385–402.

36.

Kline

T. J.

(2005). Psychological testing: A practical approach to design and evaluation. Sage.

37.

Koss

M. P.

Goodman

L. A.

Browne

Fitzgerald

L. F.

Keita

G. P.

Russo

N. F.

(1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. American Psychological Association.

38.

Lapsey

D. S.

Jr. Campbell

B. A.

Plumlee

B. T.

(2022). Focal concerns and police decision making in sexual assault cases: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23, 1220–1234.

39.

Lisak

Miller

P. M.

(2002). Repeat rape and multiple offending among undetected rapists. Violence and Victims, 17, 73.

40.

Lonsway

K. A.

Welch

Fitzgerald

L. F.

(2001). Police training in sexual assault response: Process, outcomes, and elements of change. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 695–730.

41.

Lorenz

(2023). How do investigation experiences shape views of the police? Qualitatively exploring sexual assault survivors’ interactions with police detectives and subsequent views of the police. Crime & Delinquency, 69, 342–366.

42.

Maddox

Lee

Barker

(2012). The impact of psychological consequences of rape on rape case attrition: The police perspective. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 27, 33–44.

43.

Menaker

T. A.

Franklin

C. A.

(2013). Commercially sexually exploited girls and participant perceptions of blameworthiness: Examining the effects of victimization history and race disclosure. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 2024–2051.

44.

Mourtgos

S. M.

Adams

I. T.

Mastracci

S. H.

(2021). Improving victim engagement and officer response in rape investigations: A longitudinal assessment of a brief training. Journal of Criminal Justice, 74, 101818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101818

45.

O’Neal

E. N.

(2019). “Victim is not credible”: The influence of rape culture on police perceptions of sexual assault complainants. Justice Quarterly, 36, 127–160.

46.

O’Neal

E. N.

Beckman

L. O.

Spohn

(2016). The sexual stratification hypothesis: Is the decision to arrest influenced by the victim/suspect racial/ethnic dyad? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 1287–1310.

47.

O’Neal

E. N.

Spohn

(2017). When the perpetrator is a partner: Arrest and charging decisions in intimate partner sexual assault cases: A focal concerns analysis. Violence Against Women, 23, 707–729.

48.

O’Neal

E. N.

Tellis

Spohn

(2015). Prosecuting intimate partner sexual assault: Legal and extra-legal factors that influence charging decisions. Violence Against Women, 21, 1237–1258.

49.

Pattavina

Morabito

Williams

L. M.

(2016). Examining connections between the police and prosecution in sexual assault case processing: Does the use of exceptional clearance facilitate a downstream orientation? Victims & Offenders, 11, 315–334.

50.

Patterson

(2011). The linkage between secondary victimization by law enforcement and rape case outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 328–347.

51.

Planty

Langton

Krebs

Berzofsky

Smiley-McDonald

(2013). Female victims of sexual violence, 1994-2010. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

52.

Rich

(2019). Trauma-informed police responses to rape victims. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 28, 463–480.

53.

Ruff

(2012). Does training matter? Exploring police officer response to domestic dispute calls before and after training on intimate partner violence. The Police Journal, 85(4), 285–300.

54.

Rumelhart

D. E.

(1984). Schemata and the cognitive system. In Wyer

R. S.

Skull

T. K.

(Eds.), Handbook of social cognition, (vol. 1. pp. 161–188). Lawrence Erlbaum.

55.

Rumney

P. N. S.

McPhee

(2023). Vulnerability, resilience, and rape: Uncovering the hidden work of police officers during rape investigations. International Review of Victimology, 29(3), 366–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580231151974

56.

Shaw

Campbell

Cain

Feeney

(2017). Beyond surveys and scales: How rape myths manifest in sexual assault police records. Psychology of Violence, 7, 602–614.

57.

Spohn

Tellis

(2012). Policing and prosecuting sexual assault in Los Angeles City and County: A collaborative study in partnership with the Los Angeles police department, the Los Angeles County sheriff’s department, and the Los Angeles County District Attorney’s Office. (NCJRS Document 237582). National Institute of Justice.

58.

Spohn

C. W.

(2020). Sexual assault case processing: The more things change, the more they stay the same. International Journal for Crime, Justice, and Social Democracy, 9, 86–94.

59.

George

St. Spohn

(2018). Liberating discretion: The effect of rape myth factors on prosecutors’ decisions to charge suspects in penetrative and non-penetrative sex offenses. Justice Quarterly, 35(7), 1280–1308.

60.

Stalans

L. J.

Finn

M. A.

(2000). Gender differences in officers’ perceptions and decisions about domestic violence cases. Women & Criminal Justice, 11, 1–24.

61.

Sun

I. Y.

(2007). Policing domestic violence: Does officer gender matter? Journal of Criminal Justice, 35, 581–595.

62.

Swerin

D. D.

Bostaph

L. G.

King

L. L.

Gillespie

L. K.

(2018). Police response to children present at domestic violence incidents. Child Maltreatment, 23, 417–425.

63.

Taylor

S. E.

Crocker

(1981). Schematic bases of social information processing. In Higgens

E. T.

Herman

C. P.

Zanna

M. P.

(Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario symposium (vol. 1, pp. 89–134). Lawrence Erlbaum.

64.

Venema

R. M.

(2016). Police officer schema of sexual assault reports: Real rape, ambiguous cases, and false reports. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31, 872–899.

65.

Venema

R. M.

Lorenz

Sweda

(2021). Unfounded, cleared, or cleared by exceptional means: Sexual assault case outcomes from 1999 to 2014. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, NP10688–NP10719.

66.

Watson

A. C.

Swartz

Bohrman

Kriegel

L. S.

Draine

(2014). Understanding how police officers think about mental/emotional disturbance calls. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 37, 351–358.

67.

Wentz

E. A.

(2020). Funneled through or filtered out: An examination of police and prosecutorial decision-making in adult sexual assault cases. Violence Against Women, 26, 1919–1940.

68.

West

C. M.

(1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their implication for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 32, 458–466.

69.

Williams

L. S.

(1984). The classic rape: When do victims report? Social Problems, 31, 459–467.

70.

Wilson

Segrave

(2011). Police-based victim services: Australian and international models. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 34, 339–379.

71.

Walsh

Zweig

J. M.

(2022). The link between the SAMFE and police perceptions of victim credibility. Feminist Criminology, 17, 26–49.