Do Peers Protect People or Put Them at Risk of Recidivism? Friendship Quality and Peer Crime Among Justice-Involved Youth

Abstract

Despite theoretical acknowledgments that peers can be either “good” or “bad” for criminal offending and recidivism, criminological research most often models peers as a criminogenic influence on offending behaviors. To explore the impact of peer relationships and to expand on theoretical conceptualization of peer relationship quality, the current study uses Pathways to Desistance data to examine the effects of peer quality and peer delinquency in recidivism over time among a sample of 1,272 individuals adjudicated during adolescence. Findings from a series of mixed-effects models demonstrate that peer quality is significantly predictive of increased aggressive offending. However, quality mitigates the relationship between peer delinquency and income offending, highlighting a need for further research considering potential protective aspects of peer relationships.

Keywords

peers desistance recidivism social learning social control

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agnew

(1991). A longitudinal test of social control theory and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 28(2), 126–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427891028002002

Akers

R. L.

(1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Northeastern University Press.

Allison

P. D.

(1991). Logistic regression using the SAS system: Theory and application. SAS Institute.

Andrews

D. A.

Bonta

(2006). The psychology of criminal conduct. LexisNexis.

Andrews

D. A.

Bonta

Hoge

R. D.

(1990). Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17, 19–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427891028002002

Boman

J. H.

IV . (2019). The crucial role of friendships and peer relationships in the etiology of crime, deviance, and substance use. In Krohn

Hendrix

Penly Hall

Lizotte

(Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance (pp. 479–496). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20779-3_24

Boman

J. H.

IV Krohn

M. D.

Gibson

C. L.

Stogner

J. M.

(2012). Investigating friendship quality: An exploration of self-control and social control theories’ friendship hypotheses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1526–1540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9747-x

Boman

J. H.

IV Mowen

T. J.

(2017). Building the ties that bind, breaking the ties that don’t: Family support, criminal peers, and reentry success. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(3), 753–774. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12307

Boman

J. H.

IV Mowen

T. J.

(2018). Same feathers, different flocks: Breaking down the meaning of ‘behavioral homophily’ in the etiology of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 54, 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.12.003

10.

Boman

J. H.

IV Ward

J. T.

(2014). Beyond projection: Specifying the types of peer delinquency misperception at the item and scale levels. Deviant Behavior, 35(7), 555–580. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2013.863098

11.

Bonta

Andrews

D. A.

(2007). Risk-need-responsivity model for offender assessment and rehabilitation (pp. 1–22). Public Safety Canada. https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/rsk-nd-rspnsvty/index-en.aspx#a4

12.

Brezina

Piquero

A. R.

(2007). Moral beliefs, isolation from peers, and abstention from delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 28(5), 433–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701233324

13.

Bronfenbrenner

(1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

14.

Brownfield

Thompson

(1991). Attachment to peers and delinquent behavior. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 33, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjcrim.33.1.45

15.

Bukowski

W. M.

Hoza

Boivin

(1994). Measuring friendship quality during pre- and early adolescence: The development and psychometric properties of the friendship qualities scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11(3), 471–484.

16.

Chen

Adams

(2010). Are teen delinquency abstainers social introverts? A test of Moffitt’s theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47(4), 439–468.

17.

Chung

H. L.

Steinberg

(2006). Relations between neighborhood factors, parenting behaviors, peer deviance, and delinquency among serious juvenile offenders. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 319–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.319

18.

Costello

B. J.

(2010). Peer influence toward conformity. Journal of Crime and Justice, 33(1), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2010.9721281

19.

Costello

B. J.

Hope

T. L.

(2016). Peer pressure, peer prevention: The role of friends in crime and conformity. Routledge.

20.

Costello

B. J.

Laub

J. H.

(2020). Social control theory: The legacy of Travis Hirschi’s Causes of Delinquency. Annual Review of Criminology, 3, 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-011419-041527

21.

Costello

B. J.

Vowell

P. R.

(2006). Testing control theory and differential association: A reanalysis of the Richmond youth project data. Criminology, 37(4), 815–842. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1999.tb00506.x

22.

Costello

B. J.

Zozula

(2018). Peer influence: Mechanisms and motivations. Deviant Behavior, 39(1), 94–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1260387

23.

Cronbach

L. J.

(1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555

24.

Davis

Barh

S. J.

Ward

(2013). The process of offender reintegration: Perceptions of what helps prisoners reenter society. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 13(4), 446–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895812454748

25.

Department Services Group, Inc. (2017). “Juvenile reentry.” Literature review. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

26.

Elder

G. H.

Jr. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(1), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786971

27.

Giordano

P. C.

Cernkovich

S. A.

Pugh

M. D.

(1986). Friendships and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1170–1202. https://doi.org/10.1086/228390

28.

Gleicher

(2019). Examining the extent of recidivism in Illinois after juvenile incarceration. ICJIA’s Center for Justice Research and Evaluation. https://www.icjia.illinois.gov/reserachhub/articles/examining-the-extent-of-recidivism-in-illinois

29.

Gottfredson

M. R.

Hirschi

(1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.

30.

Haynie

D. L.

(2001). Delinquent peers revisited: Does network structure matter? American Journal of Sociology, 106(4), 1013–1057. https://doi.org/10.1086/320298

31.

Haynie

D. L.

(2002). Friendship networks and delinquency: The relative nature of peer delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18(2), 99–134. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015227414929

32.

Haynie

D. L.

Osgood

D. W.

(2005). Reconsidering peers and delinquency: How do peers matter? Social Forces, 84(2), 1109–1130. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0018

33.

Heimer

(1997). Socioeconomic status, subcultural definitions, and violent delinquency. Social Forces, 75, 799–833. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/75.3.799

34.

Hirschi

(1969). A control theory of delinquency. In Frank

P. W.

Marilyn

D. M.

(Eds.), Criminology theory: selected classic readings (pp. 289–305). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing.

35.

Huizinga

Esbensen

Weihar

(1991). Are there multiple paths to delinquency? Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82(1), 83–118. https://doi.org/10.2307/1143790

36.

Indiana Department of Correction. (2018). Juvenile recidivism rates (pp. 1–16). Author. https://www.in.gov/idoc/files/2018JuvRecidivismRpt.pdf

37.

Kandel

D. B.

Davies

(1991). Friendship networks, intimacy and illicit drug use in adulthood: A comparison of two competing theories. Criminology, 29, 441–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1991.tb01074.x

38.

Kendrick

Jutengren

Stattin

(2012). The protective role of supportive friends against bullying perpetration and victimization. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 1069–1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.014

39.

Krohn

M. D.

Thornberry

T. P.

(1993). Network theory: A model for understanding drug abuse for African-American and Hispanic youth. In De La Rosa

M. R.

Adrados

J. R.

(Eds.), Drug abuse among minority youth: Methodological issues and recent research advances (pp. 102–128). National Institute on Drug Abuse.

40.

Laub

J. H.

Sampson

R. J.

(1993). Turning points in the life course: Why change matters to the study of crime. Criminology, 31(3), 301–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01132.x

41.

Meldrum

R. C.

Boman

J. H.

IV . (2013). Similarities and differences between perceptions of peer delinquency, peer self-reported delinquency, and respondent delinquency: An analysis of friendship dyads. Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(6), 395–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.07.005

42.

Miller

Morris

R. G.

(2014). Virtual peer effects in social learning theory. Crime & Delinquency, 62(12), 1543–1569. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128714526499

43.

Monahan

K. C.

Steinberg

Cauffman

(2009). Affiliation with asocial peers, susceptibility to peer influence, and antisocial behavior during the transition to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1520–1530. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017417

44.

Mowen

T. J.

Boman

J. H.

IV . (2018a). Do we have it all wrong? The protective roles of peers and criminogenic risks from family during prison reentry. Crime & Delinquency, 65, 681–704. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718800286

45.

Mowen

T. J.

Boman

J. H.

IV . (2018b). The duality of peer effect: The interplay between peer support and peer criminality on offending and substance use during reentry. Crime & Delinquency, 64(6), 1094–1116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128717740529

46.

Mowen

T. J.

Boman

J. H.

IV . (2020). (Re)Recognizing the multidimensional roles of family and peers on crime. Sociology Compass, 14(3), e12762. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12762

47.

Mulvey

E. P.

(2016). Research on pathways to desistance [Maricopa County, AZ and Philadelphia County, PA]: Subject Measures, 2000-2010. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. [Dataset]. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR2996.v2

48.

North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission. (2021). Juvenile recidivism study: FY 2018 sample. Author. https://www.nccourts.gov/assets/documents/publications/SPAC-2021-Juvenile-Recidivism-Study-Web.pdf?etPTL7TL7Tlpk_jy3MppkcFA0sufes3dTOU

49.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2019). Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement [machine-readable data files]. U.S. Census Bureau (producer). https://ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/snapshots/DataSnapshot_CJRP2017.pdf

50.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Statistical Briefing Book. (2018). Estimated number of arrests by offense and age group, 2018. Author. https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/crime/ucr.asp?table_in=1

51.

Paternoster

McGloin

J. M.

Nguyen

Thomas

K. J.

(2012). The causal impact of exposure to deviant peers: An experimental investigation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(4), 476–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427812444274

52.

Pathways to Desistance. (2004a). Friendship quality – subject follow-up. Author. https://www.pathwaysstudy.pitt.edu/codebook/friendship-quality-sf.html

53.

Pathways to Desistance. (2004b). Neighborhood conditions – subject follow-up. Author. https://www.pathwaysstudy.pitt.edu/codebook/neighborhood-conditions-sf.html

54.

Pathways to Desistance. (2004c). Peer delinquency – subject follow-up. Author. https://www.pathwaysstudy.pitt.edu/codebook/peer-delinquency-sf.html

55.

Pathways to Desistance. (2004d). Weinberger adjustment inventory (WAI) – subject follow-up. Author. https://www.pathwaysstudy.pitt.edu/codebook/wai-sf.html

56.

Pierce

G. P.

(1994). The quality of relationships inventory: Assessing the interpersonal context of social support. In Burleson

B. R.

Albrecht

T. L.

Sarason

I. G.

(Eds.), Communication of social support: Message, interactions, relationship and community (pp. 247–266). SAGE.

57.

Pierce

G. P.

Sarason

I. G.

Sarason

B. R.

Solky-Butzel

J. A.

Nagle

L. C.

(1997). Assessing the quality of personal relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14(3), 339–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407597143004

58.

Piquero

A. R.

Brezina

Turner

M. G.

(2005). Testing Moffitt’s account of delinquency abstention. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(1), 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427804266559

59.

Piquero

N. L.

Gover

A. R.

MacDonald

J. M.

Piquero

A. R.

(2005). The influence of delinquent peers on delinquency: Does gender matter? Youth & Society, 36(3), 251–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X04265652

60.

Pratt

T. C.

(2015). A self-control/life-course theory of criminal behavior. European Journal of Criminology, 13(1), 129–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370815587771

61.

Pratt

T. C.

Cullen

F. T.

(2000). Empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38(3), 931–964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00911.x

62.

Pratt

T. C.

Cullen

F. T.

Sellers

C. S.

Winfree

L. T.

Jr. Madensen

T. D.

Daigle

L. E.

Fearn

N. E.

Gau

J. M.

(2010). The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 27(6), 765–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820903379610

63.

Sampson

R. J.

Laub

J. H.

(2003). Desistance from crime over the life course. In Mortimer

J. T.

Shanahan

M. J.

(Eds.), Handbook of the life course. Handbooks of sociology and social research (pp. 295–309). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48247-2_14

64.

Sampson

R. J.

Raudenbush

(1999). Systemic social observation on public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 105(3), 603–651. https://doi.org/10.1086/210356

65.

Schwartz

J. A.

Connolly

E. J.

Brauer

J. R.

(2017). Head injuries and changes in delinquency from adolescence to emerging adulthood: The importance of self-control as a mediating influence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(6), 869–901. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427817710287

66.

Shaw

McKay

(1969). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press. (Original work published in 1942).

67.

Snyder

H. N.

Sickmund

(2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

68.

Stogner

Boman

J. H.

IV Miller

B. L.

(2015). Assessing the relationship between divergent drinking and perceptions of friendship quality between students. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 24(6), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2013.872065

69.

Stouthamer-Loeber

Wei

Loeber

Masten

A. S.

(2004). Desistance from persistent serious delinquency in the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 897–918. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579404040064

70.

Sutherland

E. H.

(1947). Principles of criminology (4th ed.). Lippincott.

71.

Taxman

F. S.

(2017). Are you asking me to change my friends? Criminology & Public Policy, 16(3), 773–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12328

72.

Thornberry

T. P.

Krohn

M. D.

Lizotte

A. J.

Chard-Wierschem

(1993). The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30(1), 55–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427893030001005

73.

Thornberry

T. P.

Lizotte

A. J.

Krohn

M. D.

Farnworth

Jang

S. J.

(1994). Delinquent peers, beliefs, and delinquent behavior: A longitudinal test of interactional theory. Criminology, 32(1), 47–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1994.tb01146.x

74.

Visher

C. A.

Courtney

S. M. E.

(2007). One year out: Experiences of prisoners returning to Cleveland. The Urban Institute.

75.

Warr

(1998). Life course transitions and desistance from crime. Criminology, 36, 183–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01246.x

76.

Warr

(2002). Companions in crime: The social aspects of criminal conduct. Cambridge University Press.

77.

Warr

Stafford

(1991). The influence of delinquent peers: What they think or what they do? Criminology, 29(4), 851–866. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1991.tb01090.x

78.

Weerman

F. M.

Bernasco

Bruinsma

G. J. N.

Pauwels

L. J. R.

(2015). When is spending time with peers related to delinquency? The importance of where, what, and with whom. Crime & Delinquency, 61(10), 1386–1413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128713478129

79.

Weerman

F. M.

Smeenk

W. H.

(2005). Peer similarity in delinquency for different types of friends: A comparison using two measurement methods. Criminology, 43(2), 499–524. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00015.x

80.

Weinberger

D. A.

Schwartz

G. E.

(1990). Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: A typological perspective. Journal of Personality, 58(2), 381–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00235.x

81.

Western

Braga

A. A.

Davis

Sirois

(2015). Stress and hardship after prison. American Journal of Sociology, 120(5), 1512–1547. https://doi.org/10.1086/681301