Justice-involved youth experience significantly higher rates of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) compared to the general population, which lead to negative outcomes such as greater criminal involvement and mental health disorders. Such effects emphasize the need to examine the role of protective factors on the development of these negative outcomes. This study uses data from 519 youth referred to a probation department in Southeast Texas to examine the effects of ACEs and the direct and mitigating effects of protective factors on a youth’s criminal involvement and mental health symptoms. Results from hierarchical linear regression models emphasize the negative effects of ACEs on these outcomes, as well as the potential ceiling effect of protective factors based on ACE severity.
AbramK. M.TeplinL. A.CharlesD. R.LongworthS. L.McClellandG. M.DulcanM. K. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.403
2.
AikenL. S.WestS. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. SAGE.
3.
AkersR. L. (1977). Deviant behavior: A social learning approach. Wadsworth.
4.
AndrewsD. A.BontaJ. (2010). The psychology of criminal conduct (5th ed.). Matthew Bender & Company Inc.
5.
ArcherR. P.Simonds-BisbeeE. C.SpiegelD. R.HandelR. W.ElkinsD. E. (2010). Validity of the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-2 (MAYSI-2) scales in juvenile justice settings. Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.482009
6.
ArebaE. M.TaliaferroL. A.ForsterM.McMorrisB. J.MathiasonM. A.EisenbergM. E. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and suicidality: School connectedness as a protective factor for ethnic minority adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105637
7.
BaglivioM. T. (2009). The assessment of risk to recidivate among a juvenile offending population. Criminal Justice Journal, 37(6), 596–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.09.008
BaglivioM. T.WolffK. T. (2021). Positive childhood experiences (PCE): Cumulative resiliency in the face of adverse childhood experiences. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 19, 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204020972487
10.
BaglivioM. T.JackowsiK.GreenwaldM. A. (2014). Serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders: A statewide analysis of prevalence and prediction of subsequent recidivism using risk and protective factors. Criminology & Public Policy, 13, 83–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12064
11.
BaglivioM. T.WolffK. T.PiqueroA. R.EppsN. (2015). The relationship between Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) and juvenile offending trajectories in a juvenile offender sample. Criminal Justice Journal, 43, 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.04.012
12.
BalistreriK. S.Alvira-HammondM. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences, family functioning and adolescent health and emotional well-being. Public Health, 132, 72–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2015.10.034
13.
BallJ.JurkovicG.BarberN.KoonR.ArmisteadL.FasuloS.ZuckerM. (2007). Relation of community violence exposure to psychological distress in incarcerated male adolescents: Moderating role of caregiver-adult support and control. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma, 15, 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1300/j146v15n02_05
14.
BanduraA. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. Holt, Reinhart & Winston.
15.
BarnoskiR. (2004). Assessing risk for re-offense: Vlidating the Washington State Juvenile Court assessment appendices. Washington State Institute for Public Policy.
16.
BetancourtT. S.KhanK. T. (2008). The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: Protective processes and pathways to resilience. International Review of Psychiatry, 20, 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260802090363
17.
BielasH.BarraS.SkrivanekC.AebiM.SteinhausenH. C.BesslerC.PlattnerB. (2016). The associations of cumulative adverse childhood experiences and irritability with mental disorders in detained male adolescent offenders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 10, 34–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-016-0122-7
18.
BrownS. M.ShillingtonA. M. (2017). Childhood adversity and the risk of substance use and delinquency: The role of protective adult relationships. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.006
Chase-LansdaleP. L.WakschlagL. S.Brooks-GunnJ. (1995). A psychological perspective on the development of caring in children and youth: The role of the family. Journal of Adolescence, 18(5), 515–556. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1995.1037
21.
ChenP.VoisinD. R.JacobsonK. C. (2013). Community violence exposure and adolescent delinquency: Examining a spectrum of promotive factors. Youth & Society, 48, 33–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044/118X12475827
22.
Clements-NolleK.WaddingtonR. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and psychological distress in juvenile offenders: The protective influence of resilience and youth assets. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.025
23.
Clements-NolleK.OmanR. F.LuM.LenschT.MoserL. (2019). Youth assets and alcohol-related problems among male and female youth: Results from a longitudinal cohort study. Preventive Medicine, 123, 192–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.042
24.
CloitreM.KhanC.MackintoshM. A.GarvertD. W.Henn-HaaseC. M.FlaveyE. C.SaitoJ. (2019). Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between ACES and physical and mental health. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000374
25.
CloitreM.StolbachB. C.HermanJ. L.van der KolkB.PynoosR.WangJ.PetkovaE. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 399–408. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20444
26.
CraigJ. M.BaglivioM. T.WolffK. T.PiqueroA. R.EppsN. (2017). Do social bonds buffer the impact of adverse childhood experiences on reoffending?Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 15, 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204016630033
27.
CuevasC.WolffK. T.BaglivioM. T. (2017). Self-efficacy, aspirations, and residential placement outcomes: Why belief in a prosocial self matters. Criminal Justice Journal, 52, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.06.006
28.
CuiZ.OshriA.LiuS.SmithE. P.KoganS. M. (2020). Child maltreatment and resilience: The promotive and protective role of future orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 2075–2089. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01227-9
29.
DavisJ. P.PortsK. A.BasileK. C.EspelageD. L.David-FerdonC. F. (2019). Understanding the buffering effects of protective factors on the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and teen dating violence perpetration. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 2459–2359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01082-3
30.
DebowskaA.WillmottD.BoduszekD.JonesA. D. (2017). What do we know about child abuse and neglect patterns of co-occurrence? A systematic review of profiling studies and recommendations for future research. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.014
31.
DierkhisingC. B.KoS. J.Woods-JaegerB.BriggsE. C.LeeR.PynoosR. S. (2013). Trauma histories among justice-involved youth: Findings from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 4(1), 20274. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.20274
32.
DingH.HanJ.ZhangM.WangK.GongJ.YangS. (2017). Moderating and mediating effects of resilience between childhood trauma and depressive symptoms in Chinese children. Journal of Affective Disorders, 211, 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.056
33.
DukeN. N.PettingellS. L.McMorrisB. J.BorowskyI. W. (2010). Adolescent violence perpetration: Associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences. Pediatrics, 125, e778–e786. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0597
34.
Evans-ChaseM. (2014). Addressing trauma and psychosocial development in Juvenile Justice-involved youth: A synthesis of the developmental neuroscience, juvenile justice and trauma literature. Laws, 3, 744–758. https://doi.org/10.3390/laws3040744
35.
FaganA. A.NovakA. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and adolescent delinquency in a high-risk sample: A comparison of white and black youth. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16, 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204017735568
36.
FazelS.DollH.LångströmN. (2008). Mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 25 surveys. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1010–1019. https://doi.org/10.1097/chi.obo13e31817eecf3
37.
FelittiV. J.AndaR. F.NordenbergD.WilliamsonD. F.SpitzA. M.EdwardsV.KossM. P.MarksJ. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
38.
FolkJ. B.RamosL. M. C.BathE. P.RosenB.MarshallB. D. L.KempK.BrownL.ConradS.Tolou-ShamsM. (2021). The prospective impact of adverse childhood experiences on justice-involved youth’s psychiatric symptoms and substance use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 89, 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000655
39.
FordJ. D.ChapmanJ. F.PearsonG.BorumR.WolpawJ. M. (2008). Psychometric status and clinical utility of the MAYSI-2 with girls and boys in Juvenile Detention. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 30, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-007-9058-9
40.
FordJ. D.GrassoD. J.HawkeJ.ChapmanJ. F. (2013). Poly-victimization among juvenile justice-involved youths. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 788–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.01.005
FoxB. H.PerezN.CassE.BaglivioM. T.EppsN. (2015). Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 46, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.011
43.
GartlandD.BondL.OlssonC. A.BuzwellS.SawyerS. M. (2011). Development of a multi-dimensional measure of resilience in adolescents: The Adolescent Resilience Questionnaire. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11, 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-134
44.
GrassoD.GreeneC.FordJ. D. (2013). Cumulative trauma in childhood: Treatment complex traumatic stress disorders in children and adolescents: An evidence based guide. In FordJ. D.CourtoisC. A. (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders in children and adolescents: Scientific foundations and therapeutic models (pp. 79–99). Guilford Press.
45.
GrissoT.BarnumR. (2006). Massachusetts youth screening instrument – version 2: User’s manual and technical report. Professional Resource Press.
46.
GrissoT.BarnumR.FletcherK. E.CauffmanE.PeuscholdD. (2001). Massachusetts youth screening instrument for mental health needs of Juvenile Justice Youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 541–548. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200105000-00013
47.
GrissoT.QuinlanJ. (2005). Massachusetts youth screening instrument – Version 2. In GrissoT.VincentG.SeagraveD. (Eds.), Mental health screening and assessment in juvenile justice (pp. 99–111). Guilford Press.
48.
Haahr-PedersenI.ErshadiA. E.HylandP.HansenM.PereraC.SheafG.BramsenR. H.SpitzP.VallièresF. (2020). Polyvictimization and psychopathology among children and adolescents: A systematic review of studies using the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Child Abuse & Neglect, 107, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104589
HawkinsJ. D.WeisJ. G. (1985). The social development model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01325432
51.
HayC.WiddowsonA. O.BatesM.BaglivioM. T.JackowskiK.GreenwaldM. A. (2018). Predicting recidivism among released juvenile offenders in Florida: An evaluation of the residential positive achievement change tool. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16, 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204016660161
52.
HirschiT. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.
53.
HoeveM.ColinsO. F.MulderE. A.LoeberR.StamsG. J.VermeirenR. R. (2015). The association between childhood maltreatment, mental health problems, and aggression in justice-involved boys. Aggressive Behavior, 41, 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21586
54.
HogeR. D. (2016). Risk, need, and responsivity in juveniles. In HeilbrunK.MatteoD.GoldsteinN. E. S. (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology and juvenile justice (pp. 179–196). American Psychological Association.
55.
KerigP. K.WardR. M.VanderzeeK. L.Arnzen MoeddelM. (2009). Posttraumatic stress as a mediator of the relationship between trauma and mental health problems among juvenile delinquents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1214–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9332-5
56.
KowalskiM. A. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and justice-involved youth: The effect of trauma and programming on different recidivistic outcomes. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17, 354–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204018809836
57.
LeeM.LeeE. S.JunJ. Y.ParkS. (2020). The effect of early trauma on North Korean refugee youths’ mental health: Moderating effect of emotional regulation strategies. Psychiatry Research, 287, 112707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112707
58.
LenschT.Clements-NolleK.OmanR. F.EvansW. P.LuM.YangW. (2021a). Adverse childhood experiences and co-occurring psychological distress and substance abuse among juvenile offenders: The role of protective factors. Public Health, 194, 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2021.02.014
59.
LenschT.Clements-NolleK.OmanR. F.EvansW. P.LuM.YangW. (2021b). Adverse childhood experiences and suicidal behaviors among youth: The buffering influence of family communication and school connectedness. Journal of Adolescent Health, 68, 945–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.08.024
60.
LiD.NgN.ChuC. M.OeiA.ChngG.RubyK. (2021). Child maltreatment and protective assets in the development of internalising and externalising problems: A study of youth offenders. Journal of Adolescence, 91, 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.07.002
61.
LiuS. R.Kia-KeatingM.Nylund-GibsonK.BarnettM. L. (2020). Co-occurring youth profiles of adverse childhood experiences and protective factors: Associations with health, resilience, and racial disparities. American Journal of Community Psychology, 65, 173–186. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12387
62.
McKenzieS. (2018). A validation study of the Positive Achievement Change Tool (PACT) [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Sam Houston State University.
63.
MoffittT. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.
64.
MooreK. A.RamirezN. A. (2016). Adverse Childhood Experience and adolescent well-being: Do protective factors matter?Child Indicators Research, 9, 299–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-015-9324-4
65.
NaramoreR.BrightM. A.EppsN.HardtN. S. (2017). Youth arrested for trading sex have the highest rates of childhood adversity: A statewide study of juvenile offenders. Sexual Abuse A Journal of Research and Treatment, 29, 396–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063215603064
66.
OmanR. F.VeselyS. K.TolmaE. L.AspyC. B.MarshallL. D. (2010). Reliability and validity of the youth asset survey: An update. American Journal of Health Promotion, 25, e13–e24. https://doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.081009-QUAN-242
67.
OralR.RamirezM.CooheyC.NakadaS.WalzA.KuntzA.BenoitJ.Peek-AsaC. (2016). Adverse childhood experiences and trauma informed care: The future of health care. Pediatric Research, 79, 227–233. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2015.197
68.
PatriciaL. G.TennysonR. L.NuriusP. S.BorjaS. (2017). Adverse childhood experiences, coping resources, and mental health problems among court-involved youth. Child & Youth Care Forum, 46, 923–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-017-9413-2
69.
PerezN. M.JenningsW. G.BaglivioM. T. (2018). A path to serious, violent, chronic delinquency: The harmful aftermath of adverse childhood experiences. Crime and Delinquency, 64, 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128716684806
70.
PiqueroA. R.MonahanK. C.GlasheenC.SchubertC. A.MulveyE. P. (2013). Does time matter? Comparing trajectory concordance and covariate association using time-based and age-based assessments. Crime and Delinquency, 59, 738–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128712459491
71.
PoquizJ. L.FiteP. J. (2018). Community violence exposure, conduct problems, and oppositional behaviors among latino adolescents: The moderating role of academic performance. Child & Youth Care Forum, 47, 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-017-9434-x
72.
ResnickM. D. (2000). Protective factors, resiliency, and healthy youth development. Adolescent Medicine, 11, 157–165.
73.
RosenbergH. J.VanceJ. E.RosenbergS. D.WolfordG. L.AshleyS. W.HowardM. L. (2014). Trauma exposure, psychiatric disorders, and resiliency in juvenile-justice-involved youth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 430–437. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033199
74.
RutterM. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.147.6.598
75.
Sachs-EricssonN.MedleyA. N.Kendall-TackettK.TaylorJ. (2011). Childhood abuse and current health problems among older adults: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Psychology of Violence, 1, 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023139
76.
SandersJ.HershbergerA. R.KolpH. M.UmM.AalsmaM.CydersM. A. (2018). PTSD symptoms mediate the relationship between sexual abuse and substance use risk in juvenile justice-involved youth. Child Maltreatment, 23, 226–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517745154
77.
ScalesP.LeffertN. (1999). Developmental assets: A synthesis of the scientific research on adolescent development. Search Institute.
SoS.Gaylord-HardenN. K.VoisinD. R.ScottD. (2018). Future orientation as a protective factor for African American adolescents exposed to community violence. Youth & Society, 50, 734–757. https://doi.org/10.117/0044118X15605108
80.
SparksL. A.TrentacostaC. J.HicksM. R.KernsmithP.Smith-DardenJ. (2021). Hope as a protective factor: Relations to adverse childhood experiences, delinquency, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30, 3005–3015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02119-7
81.
StinsonJ. D.QuinnM. A.LevensonJ. S. (2016). The impact of trauma on the onset of mental health symptoms, aggression, and criminal behavior in an inpatient psychiatric sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 61, 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.09.005
82.
TeplinL. A.AbramK. M.McClellandG. M.DulcanM. K.MericleA. A. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59(12), 1133–1143. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.59.12.1133
83.
TeplinL. A.WeltyL. J.AbramK. M.WashburnJ. J.DulcanM. K. (2012). Prevalence and persistence of psychiatric disorders in youth after detention: A prospective longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry, 69, 1031–1043. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2062
UngarM.GhazinourM.RichterJ. (2013). Annual research review: What is resilience within the social ecology of human development?Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 348–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12025
86.
VahlP.van DammeL.DoreleijersT.VermeirenR.ColinsO. (2016). The unique relation of childhood emotional maltreatment with mental health problems among detained male and female adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 62, 142–150. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.008
87.
Wall MyersT. D.SalcedoA.FrickP. J.RayJ. V.ThorntonL. C.SteinbergL.CauffmanE. (2018). Understanding the link between exposure to violence and aggression in justice-involved adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 593–603. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001134
88.
WernerE. E. (2000). Protective factors and individual resilience. In ShonkoffJ. P.MeiselsS. J. (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 115–132). Cambridge University Press.
89.
WhiteC. (2016). Incarcerating youth with mental health problems: A focus on the intersection of race, ethnicity, and mental illness. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 14, 426–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204015609965
90.
WolffK. T.BaglivioM. T.PiqueroA. R. (2017). The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and recidivism in a sample of juvenile offenders in community-based treatment. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 61, 1210–1242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x15613992
91.
YohrosA. (2022). Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and juvenile recidivism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence & Abuse. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211073846
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
