Social class is frequently used as a tool to disregard the effects of racism, attributing racial inequalities to social class differences. These attributions are embedded in color-blind and meritocratic beliefs that dismiss the pervasiveness of racism. Our study addresses this issue by investigating the intersection between classism and gendered racism, and how these two co-constructed systems have an effect on the mental health of African American women (N = 206). A multivariate multiple regression (MVMR) was performed to examine the effects of classism, gendered racism, and their interaction on psychological outcomes. The interaction of classism and gendered racism was significantly associated to all outcome variables, beyond classism or gendered racism individually. Our findings underscore the importance of adopting a strong intersectional approach to research and measurement, and future research should address African American women’s unique experiences of classist gendered racism.
AdamesH. Y.Chavez-DueñasN. Y.LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A.FrenchB. H.ChenG. A.MosleyD. V. (2023). Radical healing in psychotherapy: Addressing the wounds of racism-related stress and trauma. Psychotherapy, 60(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000435
2.
AssariS.PreiserB.LankaraniM. M.CaldwellC. H. (2018). Subjective socioeconomic status moderates the association between discrimination and depression in African American youth. Brain Sciences, 8(4), 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8040071
3.
BarajasC. B.JonesS. C. T.MilamA. J.ThorpeR. J.Jr.GaskinD. J.LaVeistT. A.Furr-HoldenC. D. M. (2019). Coping, discrimination, and physical health conditions among predominantly poor, urban African Americans: implications for community-level health services. Journal of Community Health, 44(5), 954–962. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-019-00650-9
4.
BennettG. G.MerrittM. M.Sollers IIIJ. J.EdwardsC. L.WhitfieldK. E.BrandonD. T.TuckerR. D. (2004). Stress, coping, and health outcomes among African-Americans: a review of the John Henryism hypothesis. Psychology & Health, 19(3), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044042000193505
5.
BostwickW. B.BoydC. J.HughesT. L.WestB. T.McCabeS. E. (2014). Discrimination and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0098851
6.
BronderE. C.SpeightS. LWitherspoonK. M.ThomasA. J. (2014). John Henryism, Depression, and Perceived Social Support in Black Women. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(2), 115–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798412474466
7.
CattaneoL. B.ChanW. Y.ShorR.GebhardK. T.ElshabassiN. H. (2019). Elaborating the connection between social class and classism in college. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(3–4), 476–486. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12322
CavalhieriK. E.ChwaliszK. (2020). Development and initial validation of the Perceived Classism Experiences Scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(3), 310–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019899395
10.
CavalhieriK. E.ChwaliszK.GreerT. M. (2019). The role of self-efficacy in the relationship between discrimination and health care utilization among college students in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Sciences, 4(3), 373–388. https://doi.org/10.19204/2019/thrl6
11.
CavalhieriK. E.GreerT. M.HawkinsD.ChoiH.HardyC.HeavnerE. (2024). The effects of online and institutional racism on the mental health of African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 30(3), 476–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000585
12.
CavalhieriK. E.WilcoxM. M. (2022). The compounded effects of classism and racism on mental health outcomes for African Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(1), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000561
13.
CavalhieriK. E.WillyardA.PhillippiJ. C. (2023). The effects of different types of classism on psychological outcomes: Preliminary findings. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 45(3), 422–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-023-09511-6
ChmielewskiM.KuckerS. C. (2020). An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(4), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619875149
16.
ChoiN.-Y.MillerM. J. (2018). Social class, classism, stigma, and college students’ attitudes toward counseling. The Counseling Psychologist, 46(6), 761–785. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000018796789
17.
ChristensenP.TimminsC. (2018). Sorting or steering: The effects of housing discrimination on neighborhood choice. The National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w24826
18.
CohenS.KamarckT.MermelsteinR. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
19.
CookJ. M.ClarkM.WojcikK.NairD.BaillargeonT.KowalikE. (2019). A 17-year systematic content analysis of social class and socioeconomic status in two counseling journals. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 11(2), 104–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501378.2019.1647409
CrosbyS. D.KniffleyS. D.Jr.MitchelB.JonesK. V.MiddletonJ.CaineA.VidesB. (2022). “Decolonizing mental health”: Exploring insights from clinicians trained in Kniffley racial trauma therapy. Practice Innovations, 7(3), 280–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/pri0000187
22.
DeniseE. J. (2012). Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146512444289
23.
DiemerM. A.MistryR. S.WadsworthM. E.LopezI.ReimersF. (2013). Best practices in conceptualizing and measuring social class in psychological research. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 13(1), 77–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/asap.12001
24.
DienerE.EmmonsR. A.LarsenR. J.GriffinS. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
25.
GadsonC. A.LewisJ. A. (2022). Devalued, overdisciplined, and stereotyped: An exploration of gendered racial microaggressions among Black adolescent girls. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000571
26.
GarrisonY. L.ParkS.YeungC. W.LiZ.HoY. C. S.Chang-TranJ. (2022). The social class worldviews of Chinese international students in the United States. Journal of International Students, 13(1), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v13i1.4013
27.
GaskinD. J.HeadenA. E.Jr.White-MeansS. I. (2004). Racial disparities in health and wealth: The effects of slavery and past discrimination. The Review of Black Political Economy, 32(3–4), 95–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-005-1007-9
28.
GreerT. M.SpaldingA. (2017). The role of age in understanding the psychological effects of racism for African Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(4), 588–594. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000148
29.
GrollmanE. A. (2012). Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 53, 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146512444289
30.
GrzankaP. R. (2020). From buzzword to critical psychology: An invitation to take intersectionality seriously. Women & Therapy, 43(3–4), 244–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2020.1729473
31.
GrzankaP. R.SantosC. E.MoradiB. (2017). Intersectionality research in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 453–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000237
32.
Hamilton-MasonJ.HallJ. C.EverettJ. E. (2009). And some of us are braver: Stress and coping among African American women. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19(5), 463–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350902832142
33.
HarnoisC. E.BastosJ. L.Shariff-MarcoS. (2022). Intersectionality, Contextual Specificity, and Everyday Discrimination: Assessing the Difficulty Associated With Identifying a Main Reason for Discrimination Among Racial/Ethnic Minority Respondents. Sociological Methods & Research, 51(3), 983–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120914929
34.
HuffC.TingleyD. (2015). “Who are these people?” Evaluating the demographic characteristics and political preferences of MTurk survey respondents. Research and Politics, 2(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168015604648
35.
JacksonP. B.MustilloS. (2001). I am woman: The impact of social identities on African American women's mental health. Women & Health, 32(4), 33–59. https://doi.org/10.1300/J013v32n04_03
36.
JacksonS. D.MohrJ. J.SarnoE. L.KindahlA. M.JonesI. L. (2020). Intersectional experiences, stigma-related stress, and psychological health among Black LGBQ individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 88(5), 416–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000489
37.
JamesS. A. (1994). John Henryism and the health of African-Americans. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 18(2), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01379448
38.
JamiesonM. K.GovaartG. H.PownallM. (2023). Reflexivity in quantitative research: A rationale and beginner's guide. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 17(4), e12735. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12735
39.
JeraldM. C.ColeE. R.WardL. M.AveryL. R. (2017). Controlling images: How awareness of group stereotypes affects Black women’s well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000233
40.
JonesM. S.WomackV.Jérémie-BrinkG.DickesD. D. (2021). Gendered racism and mental health among young adult U.S. Black women: The moderating roles of gendered racial identity centrality and identity shifting. Sex Roles, 85(3–4), 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01214-1
KieblerJ. M.StewartA. J. (2023). The hidden cues of social class: What do people rely on when determining someone else’s social class?Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 24(1), 73–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/asap.12373
43.
KochharR.MoslimaniM. (2023). Wealth surged in the pandemic, but debt endures for poorer Black and Hispanic families [Report]. Pew Research Center. https://coilink.org/20.500.12592/d51c897
KuhlmannD. (2020). Coveting your neighbour ’s house: understanding the positional nature of residential satisfaction. Housing Studies, 35(6), 1142–1162. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2019.1651832
46.
KuoY.-L.CasillasA.WaltonK. E.WayJ. D.MooreJ. L. (2020). The intersectionality of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status on social and emotional skills. Journal of Research in Personality, 84, 103905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103905
47.
LewisJ. A.MendenhallR.HarwoodS. A.HunttM. B. (2016). “Ain’t I a Woman?”: Perceived gendered racial microaggressions experienced by Black women. The Counseling Psychologist, 44(5), 758–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000016641193
48.
LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062
49.
LewisJ. A.WilliamsM. G.PeppersE. J.GadsonC. A. (2017). Applying intersectionality to explore the relations between gendered racism and health among Black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 475–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000231
50.
LitmanL.RobinsonJ.AbberbockT. (2017). TurkPrime.com: A versatile crowdsourcing data acquisition platform for the behavioral sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 49(2), 433–442. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-016-0727-z
51.
LiuW. M. (2001). Expanding our understanding of multiculturalism: Developing a social class worldview model. In Pope-DavisD. B.ColemanH. L. K. (Eds.), The intersection of race, class, and gender in counseling psychology (pp. 127–170). Sage.
52.
LiuW. M. (2011). Social class and classism in the helping professions: Research, theory, and practice. Sage.
53.
LiuW. M. (2017). White male power and privilege: The relationship between White supremacy and social class. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(4), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000227
54.
LiuW. M.CavalhieriK. E. (2022). Internalized Classism. In EstrelladoJ. E.FelipeL. S.CelestialJ. E. (Eds.), Clinical Interventions for Internalized Oppression (pp. 269–293). Cognella.
55.
LiuW. M.LiuR. Z.ShinR. Q. (2023). Understanding systemic racism: Anti-Blackness, White supremacy, racial capitalism, and the re/creation of White space and time. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 70(3), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000605
56.
LiuW. M.PickettT.Jr.IveyA. E. (2007). White middle-class privilege: Social class bias and implications for training and practice. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 35(4), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2007.tb00060.x
57.
MansteadA. S. R. (2018). The psychology of social class: How socioeconomic status impacts thought, feelings, and behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 57(2), 267–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12251
58.
MeyerT. J.MillerM. L.MetzgerR. L.BorkovecT. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(6), 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6
59.
MoradiB.GrzankaP. R. (2017). Using intersectionality responsibly: Toward critical epistemology, structural analysis, and social justice activism. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000203
60.
MoradiB.WisemanM. C.DeBlaereC.GoodmanM. B.SarkeesA.BrewsterM. E.HuangY.-P. (2010). LGB of color and White individuals’ perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and outness: Comparisons of levels and links. The Counseling Psychologist, 38(3), 397–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000009335263
61.
MosleyD. V.HargonsC. N.MeillerC.AngyalB.WheelerP.DavisC.Stevens-WatkinsD. (2021). Critical consciousness of anti-Black racism: A practical model to prevent and resist racial trauma. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000430
62.
NoonanA. E.LiuW. M. (2022). Psychology and the Social Class Worldview: A Narrative-Based Introduction. Routledge.
63.
PerryB. L.Stevens-WatkinsD.OserC. B. (2013). The moderating effects of skin color and ethnic identity affirmation on suicide risk among low-SES African American women. Race and Social Problems, 5(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-012-9080-8
64.
PoonO. A.SegoshiM. S.TangL.SurlaK. L.NguyenC.SquireD. D. (2019). Asian Americans, affirmative action, and the political economy of racism: A multidimensional model of raceclass frames. Harvard Educational Review, 89(2), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-89.2.201
65.
RiveraL. A.TilcsikA. (2016). Class advantage, commitment penalty: The gendered effect of social class signals in an elite labor market. American Sociological Review, 81(6), 1097–1131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416668154
66.
ShinR. Q.WelchJ. C.KayaA. E.YeungJ. G.ObanaC.SharmaR.VernayC. N.YeeS. (2017). The intersectionality framework and identity intersections in the Journal of Counseling Psychology and The Counseling Psychologist: A content analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 458–474. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000204
67.
ShinY.-j.LeeJ.-y. (2017). Predictors of career decision self-efficacy: Sex, socioeconomic status (SES), classism, modern sexism, and locus of control. Journal of Career Assessment, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072717692981
Stevens-WatkinsD.PerryB.PullenE.JewellJ.OserC. B. (2014). Examining the associations of racism, sexism, and stressful life events on psychological distress among African-American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(4), 561–569. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036700
70.
StilesK.LeeS. S.LutharS. S. (2020). When parents seek perfection: Implications for psychological functioning among teens at high-achieving schools. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(11), 3117–3128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01828-9
71.
SzymanskiD. M.MeyerD. (2008). Racism and heterosexism as correlates of psychological distress in African American sexual minority women. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 2(2), 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538600802125423
72.
ThomasK. (2018). The labor market value of taste: An experimental study of class bias in U.S. employment. Sociological Science, 5, 562–595. https://doi.org/10.15195/v5.a24
73.
ThompsonM. N. (2013). Career barriers and coping efficacy among Native American students. Journal of Career Assessment, 21(3), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072712471501
Van DykeM. E.VaccarinoV.QuyyumiA. A.LewisT. T. (2016). Socioeconomic status discrimination is associated with poor sleep in African-Americans, but not Whites. Social Science & Medicine, 153, 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.02.012
76.
VelezB. L.CoxR.Jr.PolihronakisC. J.MoradiB. (2018). Discrimination, work outcomes, and mental health among women of color: The protective role of womanist attitudes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(2), 178–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000274
77.
WilcoxM. M. (2023). Oppression is not “culture”: The need to center systemic and structural determinants to address anti-Black racism and racial trauma in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 60(1), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000446
78.
WilliamsK.LundT. J.LiangB.MousseauA. D.SpencerR. (2018). Associations between stress, psychosomatic complaints, and parental criticism among affluent adolescent girls. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 1384–1393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0991-2
79.
WrightL. N.LewisJ. A. (2020). Is physical activity a buffer? Gendered racial microaggressions and anxiety among African American Women. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(2–3), 122–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798420929112
80.
XieT. H.AhujaM.McCutcheonV. V.BucholzK. K. (2020). Associations between racial and socioeconomic discrimination and risk behaviors among African-American adolescents and young adults: A latent class analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(11), 1479–1489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01884-y
