Converging insights into attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) support the notion that ADHD is best characterized behaviorally as a disorder of self-regulation or executive functioning. Anatomic neuroimaging studies suggest that the relevant regulatory circuits include the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia, which are modulated by dopaminergic innervation from the midbrain and by stimulant medications. The emerging model proposed in this review encompasses a developmental perspective into this common condition.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.
2.
2. Szatmari P. The epidemiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am.1992;1:361-371.
3.
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed., Revised, Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.
4.
4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
5.
5. Wang YC, Chong MY, Chou WJ, Yang JL. Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary school children in Taiwan. J Formos Med Assoc.1993;92:133-138.
6.
6. Kanbayashi Y, Nakata Y, Fujii K, et al. ADHD-related behavior among none ferred children: parents' ratings of DSM-lII-R symptoms. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev.1994;25:13-29.
7.
7. Bhatia MS, Nigam VR, Bohra N, Malik SC. attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity among pediatric outpatients. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1991;32:297-306.
8.
8. Taylor E, Chadwick O, Heptinstall E, Danckaerts M. Hyperactivity and conduct problems as risk factors for adolescent development. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35:1213-1226.
9.
9. Weinberg WA, Brumback RA. The myth of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: symptoms resulting from multiple causes.J Child Neurol.1992;7:431-445; discussion 446.
10.
10. Diller LH. The run on Ritalin. attention-deficit disorder and stimulant treatment in the 1990s. Hastings Center Reports. 1996;26:12-18.
11.
11. Lahey BB, Applegate B, McBurnett K, et al. DSM-IV field trials for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:1673-1685.
12.
12. Wender PH. Some speculations concerning a possible biochemical basis of minimal brain dysfunction. Ann NY Acad Sci.1973;205:18-28.
13.
13. Gualtieri CT. The functional neuroanatomy of psychiatric treatments. Psychiatr Clin North Am.1991;14:113-124.
14.
14. Levy F. The dopamine theory of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 1991;25:277-283.
15.
15. McCracken JT. A two-part model of stimulant action on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children. J Neuropsychiatry. 1991;3:201-209.
16.
16. Pliszka SR, McCracken JT, Maas JW. Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current perspectives. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35:264-272.
17.
17. Shaywitz BA, Klopper JH, Gordon JW. Methylphenidate in 6-hydroxy dopamine-treated developing rat pups. Effects on activity and maze performance. Arch Neurol.1978;35:463-469.
18.
18. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Zahn TP, et al. Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepubertal boys. Science. 1978; 199:560-563.
19.
19. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, et al. Dextroamphetamine. Its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980;37:933-943.
20.
20. Lederer R, Elsner J, Zbinden G. Animal models in behavioral toxicology and teratology. Arch Toxicol.1991;14(Suppl):15-24.
21.
21. Sagvolden T, Metzger MA, Schiorbeck HK, et al. The spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of childhood hyperactivity (ADHD): changed reactivity to reinforcers and to psychomotor stimulants. Behav Neural Biol.1992;58:103-112.
22.
22. Kohlert JG, Bloch GJ. A rat model for attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Physiol Behav.1993;53:1215-1218.
23.
23. Kostrzewa RM, Brus R, Kalbfleisch JH, et al. Proposed animal model of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Brain Res Bull.1994;34:161-167.
24.
24. Mook DM, Neuringer A. Different effects of amphetamine on reinforced variations versus repetitions in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Physiol Behav.1994;56:939-944.
25.
25. Dell' Anna ME, Luthman J, Lindqvist E, Olson L. Development of monoamine systems after neonatal anoxia in rats. Brain Res Bull.1993;32:159-170.
26.
26. Roeltgen DP, Schneider JS. Chronic low-dose MPTP in nonhuman primates: a possible model for attention-deficit disorder. J Child Neurol.1991;6:S82-S89.
27.
27. Baumgaertel A, Wolraich ML, Dietrich M. Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit disorders in a German elementary school sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34:629-638.
28.
28. de Quiros GB, Kinsbourne M, Palmer RL, Rufo DT. attention-deficit disorder in children: three clinical variants. J Dev Behav Pediatr.1994;15:311-319.
29.
29. Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE. Comorbidity: a critical issue in attention-deficit disorder. J Child Neurol.1991;6:S13-S22.
30.
30. Semrud-Clikeman M, Biederman J, Sprich-Buckminster S, et al. Comorbidity between ADHD and learning disability: a review and report in a clinically referred sample.J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31:439-448.
31.
31. Pennington BF, Groisser D, Welsh MC. Contrasting cognitive deficits in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability. Dev Psychology. 1993;29:511-523.
32.
32. Kinsbourne M. Minimal brain dysfunction as a neurodevelopmental lag. Ann NY Acad Sci.1973;205:268-273.
33.
33. Dykens E, Leckman JF, Riddle M, et al. Intellectual, academic, and adaptive functioning of Tourette syndrome children with and without attention-deficit disorder.J Abnorm Child Psychol.1990;18:607-615.
34.
34. Chelune GJ, Ferguson W, Koon R, Dickey TO. Frontal lobe disinhibition in attention-deficit disorder. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev.1986;16:221-234.
35.
35. Amin K, Douglas VI, Mendelson MJ, Dufresne J. Separable/integral classification by hyperactive and normal children. Dev Psychopathol.1993;5:415-431.
36.
36. Frick PJ, Lahey BB, Applegate B, et al. DSM-IV field trials for the disruptive behavior disorders: symptom utility estimates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33:529-539.
37.
37. Hart EL, Lahey BB, Loeber R, et al. Developmental change in attentiondeficit/hyperactive disorder in boys: a four year longitudinal study. J Abnorm Child Psychol.1995;23:729-749.
38.
38. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, et al. Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:565-576.
39.
39. Gittelman R, Mannuzza S, Shenker R, Bonagura N. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. I. Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:937-947.
40.
40. Barkley RA, Anastopoulos AD, Guevremont DC, Fletcher KE. Adolescents with ADHD: patterns of behavioral adjustment, academic functioning, and treatment utilization. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991; 30:752-761.
41.
41. Hechtman L, Weiss G. Controlled prospective fifteen year follow-up of hyperactives as adults: non-medical drug and alcohol use and anti-social behavior. Can J Psychiatry. 1986; 31:557-567.
42.
42. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Konig PH, Giampino TL. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. IV. Criminality and its relationship to psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:1073-1079.
43.
43. Faigel HC, Sznajderman S, Tishby O, et al. attention-deficit disorder during adolescence: a review. J Adolesc Health. 1995;16:174-184.
44.
44. Pless IB, Taylor HG, Arsenault L. The relationship between vigilance deficits and traffic injuries involving children. Pediatrics. 1995;95:219-224.
45.
45. Barkley RA, Guevremont DC, Anastopoulos AD, et al. Driving-related risks and outcomes of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents and young adults: a 3- to 5- year follow-up survey. Pediatrics. 1993;92:212-218.
46.
46. Lynskey MT, Fergusson DM. Childhood conduct problems, attention-deficit behaviors, and adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use.J Abnorm Child Psychol.1995;23:281-302.
47.
47. Milich R, Loney J. The role of hyperactive and aggressive symptomatology in predicting adolescent outcome among hyperactive children. Annu Prog Child Psychiatry Child Dev.1980;336-356.
48.
48. Martin CS, Earleywine M, Blackson TC, et al. Aggressivity, inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in boys at high and low risk for substance abuse. J Abnorm Child Psychol.1994;22:177-203.
49.
49. Rosvold HE, Mirsky AF, Sarason I, et al. A continuous performance test of brain damage. j Consult Psychol.1956;20:343-350.
50.
50. Van der Meere J, Sergeant J. Acquisition of attention skill in pervasively hyperactive children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1988;29:301-310.
51.
51. Barkley RA. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull.1996 (in press).
52.
52. Denckla MB. Executive function, the overlap zone between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities. Int Pediatr.1989;4:155-160.
53.
53. Denckla MB. A theory and model of executive function. A neuropsychological perspective. In: Lyon GR, Krasnegor NA, eds. Attention, Memory, and Executive Function.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.; 1996:263-278.
54.
54. Quinn PO, Stern J. Putting on the Brakes: Young People's Guide to Understanding Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.New York: Magination Press; 1991.
55.
55. Pontius AA. Dysfunction patterns analogous to frontal lobe system and caudate nucleus syndromes in some groups of minimal brain dysfunction. J Am Med Wom Assoc.1973;28:285-292.
56.
56. Benson DF. The role of frontal dysfunction in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol.1991;6:s9-s12.
57.
57. Benton A. Prefrontal injury and behavior in children. Dev Neuropsychol.1991;7:275-281.
58.
58. Mattes JA. The role of frontal lobe dysfunction in childhood hyperkinesis. Compr Psychiatry. 1980;21:358-369.
59.
59. Alexander GE, DeLong MR, Strick PL. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci.1986;9:357-381.
60.
60. Alexander GE, Crutcher MD. Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits: neural substrates of parallel processing. Trends Neurosci.1990;13: 266-271.
61.
61. Yeterian EH, Van Hoesen GW. Cortico-striate projections in the rhesus monkey: the organization of certain cortico-caudate connections. Brain Res.1978;139:43-63.
62.
62. DeLong MR. Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends Neurosci.1990;13:281-285.
63.
63. Gerfen CR. The neostriatal mosaic: multiple levels of compartmental organization. Trends Neurosci.1992;15: 133-139.
64.
64. Albin RL, Young AB, Penney JB. The functional anatomy of disorders of the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci.1995;18:63-64.
65.
65. Parent A. Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci.1990;13:254-258.
66.
66. Smith ID, Grace AA. Role of the subthalamic nucleus in the regulation of nigral dopamine neuron activity. Synapse.1992;12:287-303.
67.
67. Mink J, Thach T. Basal ganglia intrinsic circuits and their role in behavior. Curr Opin Neurobiol.1993;3:950-957.
68.
68. Wichmann T, Bergman H, DeLong MR. The primate subthalamic nucleus. I. Functional properties in intact animals. J Neurophysiol.1994; 72:494-506.
69.
69. Wichmann T, DeLong MR. Pathophysiology of Parkinsonian motor abnormalities. In: Narabayashi H, Nagatsu T, Yanagisawa N, Mizuno Y, eds. Advances in Neurology, Vol. 60. New York: Raven Press; 1993:53-61.
70.
70. Hallett M. Physiology of basal ganglia disorders: an overview. Can J Neurol Sci.1993;20:177-183.
71.
71. Modell JG, Mountz JM, Curtis GC, Greden JF. Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive compulsive disorder. J Neuropsychiatry. 1989;1:27-36.
72.
72. Baxter LR. Brain imaging as a tool in establishing a theory of brain pathology in obsessive compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990;51 (Suppl 2):22-25.
73.
73. Saint-Cyr JA, Taylor AE, Nicholson K. Behavior and the basal ganglia. Adv Neurol.1995;65:1-28.
74.
74. Mefford IN, Potter WZ. A neuroanatomical and biochemical basis for attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity in children: a defect in tonic adrenaline mediated inhibition of locus coeruleus stimulation. Med Hypotheses. 1989;29:33-42.
75.
75. Bannon MJ, Granneman JG, Kapatos G. The dopamine transporter. Potential involvement in neuropsychiatric disorders. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, eds. Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress.New York: Raven Press; 1995:179-188.
76.
76. Roth RH, Elsworth JD. Biochemical pharmacology of midbrain dopamine neurons. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, eds. Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress.New York: Raven Press; 1995:227-243.
77.
77. Le Moal M. Mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic neurons. Functional and regulatory roles. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, eds. Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress.New York: Raven Press; 1995:283-294.
78.
78. Iacono RP, Shima F, Lonser RR, et al. The results, indications, and physiology of posteroventral pallidotomy for patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurosurgery. 1995;36:1118-1125; discussion 1125.
79.
79. Laitinen LV. Pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease. Neurosurg Clin North Am.1995;6:105-112.
80.
80. Dogali M, Fazzini E, Kolodny E, et al. Stereotactic ventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1995;45:753-761.
81.
81. Guridi J, Luquin MR, Herrero MT, Obeso JA. The subthalamic nucleus: a possible target for stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson's disease [see comments]. Mov Disord.1993;8:421-429.
82.
82. Sterio D, Beric A, Dogali M, et al. Neurophysiological properties of pallidal neurons in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol.1994;35:586-591.
83.
83. Grafton ST, Waters C, Sutton J, et al. Pallidotomy increases activity of motor association cortex in Parkinson's disease: a positron emission tomographic study. Ann Neurol.1995;37:776-783.
84.
84. Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T, et al. Reward-related activity in the monkey striatum and substantia nigra.
85.
85. Schultz W, Apicella P, Ljungberg T. Responses of monkey dopamine neurons to reward and conditioned stimuli during successive steps of learning a delayed response task. J Neurosci.1993;13:900-913.
86.
86. Berridge K, Vernier IL, Robinson TE. Taste reactivity analysis of 6-hydroxy-dopamine induced aphagia: implications for arousal and anhedonia hypotheses of dopamine function. Behav Neurosci.1989;103:36-45.
87.
87. Robinson TE, Berridge KC. The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev.1993;18:247-291.
88.
88. Schultz W, Romo R. Dopamine neurons of the monkey midbrain: contingencies of responses to stimuli eliciting immediate behavioral reactions. J Neurophysiol.1990;63:607-624.
89.
89. Goldman-Rakic PS, Lidow MS, Smiley JF, Williams MS. The anatomy of dopamine in monkey and human prefrontal cortex. J Neural Transm.1992;36(Suppl):163-177.
90.
90. Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS. Modulation of memory fields by dopamine DI receptors in prefrontal cortex. Nature. 1995;376:572-575.
91.
91. Sawaguchi T, Goldman-Rakic PS. The role of DI-dopamine receptor in working memory: local injections of dopamine antagonists into the prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkeys performing an oculomotor delayed-response task. J Neurophysiol.1994; 71:515-528.
93. Meador-Woodruff JH, Damask SP, Watson SJ, Jr.Differential expression of autoreceptors in the ascending dopamine systems of the human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci.1994;91:8297-8301.
94.
94. Bannon MJ, Wolf ME, Roth RH. Pharmacology of dopamine neurons innervating the prefrontal, cingulate and piriform cortices. Eur J Pharmacol.1983;91:119-125.
96. Scatton B. Differential regional development of tolerance to increase in dopamine turnover upon repeated neuroleptic administration. Eur J Pharmacol.1977;46:363-369.
97.
97. Chiodo LA, Bannon MJ, Grace AA, et al. Evidence for the absence of impulse-regulating somatodendritic and synthesis-modulating nerve terminal autoreceptors on subpopulations of mesocortical dopamine neurons. Neuroscience. 1984;12:1-16.
98.
98. Safer DJ, Allen RP. Absence of tolerance to the behavioral effects of methylphenidate in hyperactive and inattentive children. J Pediatr.1989;115:1003-1008.
99.
99. Hedner J, Lundell KH, Breese GR, et al. Developmental variations in CSF monoamine metabolites during childhood. Biol Neonate.1986;49:190-197.
100.
100. Chugani HT, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC. Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Ann Neurol.1987;22:487-497.
101.
101. Post RM, Kotin J, Goodwin FK, Gordon EK. Psychomotor activity and cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites in affective illness. Am J Psychiatry. 1973;130:67-72.
102.
102. Banki CM. Correlation between cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites and psychomotor activity in affective disorders. J Neurochem.1977;28:255-257.
103.
103. Chaouloff F, Laude D, Guezennec Y, Elghozi JL. Motor activity increases tryptophan, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and homovanillic acid in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of the conscious rat. J Neurochem.1986;46: 1313-1316.
104.
104. Castellanos FX, Elia J, Kruesi MJ, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res.1994;52:305-316.
105.
105. Castellanos FX, Elia J, Kruesi MJP, et al. Cerebrospinal homovanillic acid predicts behavioral response to stimulants in 45 boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1996;14: 125-137.
106.
106. Shetty T, Chase TN. Central monoamines and hyperkinesis of childhood. Neurology.1976;26:1000-1006.
107.
107. Amin F, Davidson M, David KL. Homovanillic acid in clinical research: a review of methodology. Schizophr Bull.1992;18:123-148.
108.
108. Cook EH, Jr., Stein MA, Krasowski MD, et al. Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Hum Genet.1995;56:993-998.
109.
109. LaHoste GJ, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, et al. Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 1996;1:121-124.
110.
110. Giros B,Jaber M,Jones SR, et al. Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature. 1996;379:606-612.
111.
111. Ebstein RP, Novick 0, Umansky R, et al. Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nat Genet.1996; 12:78-80.
112.
112. Benjamin J, Li L, Patterson C, Greenberg BD, et al. Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking. Nat Genet.1996;12:81-84.
113.
113. Mrzljak L, Bergson C, Pappy M, et al. Localization of dopamine D4 receptors in GABAergic neurons of the primate brain. Nature. 1996;381:245-248.
114.
114. Zametkin AJ, Nordahl TE, Gross M, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. N Engl J Med.1990;323:1361-1366.
115.
115. Matochik JA, Nordahl TE, Gross M, et al. Effects of acute stimulant medication on cerebral metabolism in adults with hyperactivity. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1993;8:377-386.
116.
116. Zametkin AJ, Liebenauer LL, Fitzgerald GA, et al. Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:333-340.
117.
117. Ernst M, Liebenauer LL, King AC, et al. Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33:858-868.
118.
118. Lou HC, Henriksen L, Bruhn P. Focal cerebral dysfunction in developmental learning disabilities. Lancet. 1990;335:8-11.
120. Teicher MH, Polcari A, Anderson CM, et al. Methylphenidate effects on hyperactivity and fMRI in children with ADHD. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Scientific Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, 1996:12-12(Abstract).
121.
121. Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:607-616.
122.
122. Casey BJ, Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, et al. Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36:374-383.
123.
123. Hynd GW, Hern KL, Novey ES, et al. attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and asymmetry of the caudate nucleus. J Child Neurol.1993;8:339-347.
124.
124. Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, et al. Volumetric MRI analysis comparing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal controls. Neurology.1997;48:589-601.
125.
125. Aylward EH, Reiss AL, Reader MJ, et al. Basal ganglia volumes in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol.1996; 11: 112-115.
126.
126. Hynd GW, Semrud-Clikeman M, Lorys AR, et al. Corpus callosum morphology in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: morphometric analysis of MRI. J Learn Disabil.1991;24:141-146.
127.
127. Giedd JN, Castellanos FX, Casey BJ, et al. Quantitative morphology of the corpus callosum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. AmJPsychiatry. 1994;151:665-669.
128.
128. Semrud-Clikeman M, Filipek PA, Biederman J, et al. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: magnetic resonance imaging morphometric analysis of the corpus callosum. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994; 33:875-881.
129.
129. Baumgardner TL, Singer HS, Denckla MB, et al. Corpus callosum morphology in children with Tourette syndrome and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurol- ogy. 1996;47:477-482.
130.
130. Heilman KM, Voeller KKS, Nadeau SE. A possible pathophysiologic substrate of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.JChildNeurol.1991;6:S76-S81.
131.
131. Pardo JV, Fox PT, Raichle ME. Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography. Nature. 1991;349:61-64.
132.
132. Cohen RM, Semple WE, Gross M, et al. Functional localization of sustained attention: comparison to sensory stimulation in the absence of instruction. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol.1988;1:3-20.
133.
133. Corbetta M, Miezin FM, Shulman GL, Petersen SE. A PET study of visuospatial attention. J Neurosci.1993; 13: 1202-1226.
134.
134. Voeller KKS, Heilman KM. attention-deficit disorder in children: a neglect syndrome?Neurology. 1988;38:806-808.
135.
135. Rothlind J, Posner MI, Schaughency E. Lateralized control of eye movements in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. 1991 (unpublished).
136.
136. Malone MA, Kershner JR, Swanson JM. Hemispheric processing and methylphenidate effects in attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol.1994;9:181-189.
137.
137. Malone MA, Couitis J, Kershner JR, Logan WJ. Right hemisphere dysfunction and methylphenidate effects in children with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol.1994;4:245-253.
138.
138. Becker DF, Doane JA, Wexler BE. Effects of emotion on perceptual asymmetry in adolescent inpatients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32:318-321.
139.
139. Mitchell WG, Chavez JM, Baker SA, et al. Reaction time, impulsivity, and attention in hyperactive children and controls: a video game technique. J Child Neurol.1990;5:195-204.
140.
140. Weinberg WA, Harper CR. Vigilance and its disorders. Neurol Clin.1993;1 1:59-78.
141.
141. Gross-Tsur V, Shalev RS, Manor 0, Amir N. Developmental right-hemisphere syndrome: clinical spectrum of the nonverbal learning disability.J Learn DisabiL1995;28:80-86.
142.
142. Carter CS, Krener P, Chaderjian M, et al. Asymmetrical visual-spatial attentional performance in ADHD: evidence for a right hemispheric deficit. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;37:789-797.
143.
143. Branch WB, Cohen MJ, Hynd GW. Academic achievement and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with leftor right-hemisphere dysfunction. J Learn Disabil.1995;28:35-43, 64.
144.
144. Rounsaville BJ, Anton SF, Carroll K, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses of treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48:43-51.
145.
145. Schubiner H, Tzelepis A, Isaacson JH, et al. The dual diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: case reports and literature review. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56:146-150.
146.
146. Solanto MV. Behavioral effects of lowdose methylphenidate in childhood attention-deficit disorder: implications for a mechanism of stimulant drug action. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1986;25:96-101.
147.
147. Schleifer M, Weiss G, Cohen N, et al. Hyperactivity in preschoolers and the effect of methylphenidate. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1975;45:38-50.
148.
148. Graham S, Harris KR. Addressing problems in attention, memory, and executive functioning. An example from self-regulated strategy development. In: Lyon GR, Krasnegor NA, eds. Attention, Memory, and Executive Function. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co; 1996:349-365.
149.
149. Barkley RA. Impaired delayed responding: a unified theory of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In: Routh DK, ed. Disruptive Behavior Disorders in Childhood. New York: Plenum; 1994:11-57.
150.
150. Yakovlev PI, Lecours AR. The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In: Minkowski A, ed. Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life. Oxford & Edinburgh: Blackwell Scientific; 1967:3-70.
151.
151. Segalowitz SJ, Unsal A, Dywan J. Cleverness and wisdom in 12-year-olds: electrophysiological evidence for late maturation of the frontal lobe. Dev Neuropsychol.1992;8:279-298.
152.
152. Goldman-Rakic PS. Development of cortical circuitry and cognitive function. Child Dev.1987;58:601-622.
153.
153. Stuss DT. Biological and psychological development of executive functions. Brain Cogn.1992;20:8-23.
154.
154. Thatcher RW. Maturation of the human frontal lobes: physiological evidence for staging. Dev Neuropsychol.1991;7:397-419.
