Abstract
This study investigated the state of music education in New South Wales (NSW) government primary schools and provided essential baseline data to inform policy and program development. It focused on teachers’ experiences, training, and perceptions regarding music education. 706 teachers from 95 schools participated in the survey, representative of the sample for school location and Socio-Economic Index for Areas (SEIFA). The survey collected information in eight key areas: respondent characteristics, school facilities, initial teacher education, music teaching confidence and professional learning, music education in your school, nature of your music teaching, perceived benefits of music and student responsiveness. Understanding the state of music education in NSW government primary schools allows for the provision of informed policy and advocacy efforts to support music education. By detailing the current state of music education and its benefits, stakeholders can make informed decisions around policy and program development and ensure a high-quality and sequential music education for all students.
Keywords
Introduction
Music education has long been recognised as a vital component of a well-rounded educational experience. It encompasses the teaching and learning of music skills, theory, and appreciation, and its benefits extend beyond musical proficiency.
Music education has been shown to enhance various cognitive and academic skills in students (Hille & Schupp, 2015). Music psychologists have established that some forms of musical activity can improve intellectual performance, spatial–temporal reasoning and other skills advantageous for learning (Costa-Giomi, 2014; Graziano, 1999; Hallam, 2015; Rauscher, 2003; Schellenberg, 2004). Studies have also reported that music training is linked to enhanced executive functions, such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control (Hille & Schupp, 2015; Vetere et al., 2024), while Guhn et al. (2020) found that music education contributes to improved literacy and numeracy skills, demonstrating a small to moderate effect on overall academic performance.
Initial teacher education (ITE) in music is vital for cultivating skilled and passionate music teachers. It equips future teachers with the necessary knowledge, techniques, and pedagogical strategies to effectively teach music. The average compulsory music education time in Australian ITE programs has dropped 53% over 14 years – from 17 hours in 2009 to just 8 hours in 2022 (Collins & Hocking, 2023). Forrest and Jeanneret (2023) also found a significant reduction in time for music in ITE, noting the pressure on the ITE curriculum with (1) music now being taught within a broader Arts key learning program, (2) a move from undergraduate degrees to shorter Master of Teaching degrees, while (3) institutions teaching ITE have aligned with regulatory requirements to be registered to teach in Australia. The reduction in music pedagogy instruction influences teacher practices and the extent to which they have the confidence to incorporate music learning experiences in their classrooms.
Promisingly, Vannatta-Hall (2010) found that it was possible to boost pre-service early childhood teachers’ confidence and competence to teach music over a single semester of study by undertaking a 15-week music methods course. They showed how important it is to provide pre-service generalists with the skills to teach music, supporting the development of competencies needed to provide adequate music opportunities for their future students. Investing in quality ITE in music is essential for building strong foundations for music education in schools.
Instruction in music pedagogy remains necessary beyond initial teacher education, with continued professional development supporting teachers’ effectiveness in delivering music education. Thorn and Brasche (2020) found that five 1.5 hour targeted professional learning workshops covering much of the primary curriculum, but focused on singing and composition, provided noticeable improvement in the confidence of the participants to deliver music programs. When teachers participate in professional learning opportunities, they gain new skills, knowledge, and strategies that enhance their teaching practice, boosting their confidence in delivering music education effectively. Professional learning provides teachers with the latest pedagogical approaches, access to resources, and the chance to collaborate with peers, all of which contribute to a more robust and confident teaching practice.
Understanding who is teaching music, the forms these lessons take, and their frequency is crucial for ensuring the equity, quality and consistency of music education (Wiggins & Wiggins, 2008). It helps identify the qualifications and expertise of music teachers, ensuring all students receive high-quality instruction. A study by Russell-Bowie (2009) found that Australia had the lowest proportion of pre-service teachers who felt that primary schools both should, and actually do, give a high priority to music education. The pre-service teachers had the weakest background in music education compared to those in four other countries – South Africa, Namibia, USA, and Ireland – which also led to the lowest confidence to teach music within the five countries. As teachers become more confident, they are better able to engage students, foster a positive learning environment, and inspire a love for music (Joseph, 2019).
Russell-Bowie (2009) noted that primary schools need to give music education adequate time, resources and trained teachers to implement the curriculum, indicating clearly that the school values and prioritises music education, both for itself and for the benefits it brings to the children. Knowing the structure and frequency of lessons allows for the assessment of whether students are getting sufficient exposure to develop their musical skills. This information also aids in resource allocation, curriculum planning, and identifying areas for professional development. Wiggins and Wiggins (2008) noted the need to present policy makers with descriptions of what music learning is occurring in primary classrooms so they have accurate criteria for making decisions about the future of music education in the schools. When music education is effectively integrated into the school curriculum, students’ overall learning experience benefits.
In 2019, The Tony Foundation commissioned a comprehensive review of music education in Australia to understand the current state-of-play, gather evidence, and identify barriers in the current system which prevent it from achieving the desired outcomes (Collins et al., 2020). This work found that the benefits of a quality, sequential and ongoing music education included (1) practical effects which include physical development and how that impacts on learning such as understanding space and time, helping attitudes, behaviours and teamwork; (2) cognitive effects as they relate to how children learn, such as processing sound, assigning sound to symbols, logic processing and memory; as well as (3) non-cognitive developments as they relate to emotional, social, and wellbeing development such as understanding of self, regulation of self, healthy development and social cohesion.
Ensuring all students have access to quality music education is a matter of educational equity. Music education should be available to every child, regardless of their socio-economic background. Understanding the other benefits of music learning, and the perceptions of these benefits by the teachers currently working in the schools can help teachers and policymakers advocate for the inclusion of music programs in the curriculum. Knowing how prepared and confident teachers are to teach music provides a baseline from which improvement can be made. When teachers become more confident and competent with learning and making music themselves, they are more likely to teach music and to teach it successfully (Russell-Bowie, 2009).
This aim of this study was to better understand the state of music education in New South Wales (NSW) government primary schools to inform policy and advocacy efforts to support music education. Supporting this aim were the following research questions: (1) What are the key characteristics of government primary teachers in NSW who deliver music learning? (2) Where/How/When/What music learning is being delivered in government primary schools in NSW? (3) What are the perceived benefits of music learning in government primary schools in NSW?
Method
Participants
In 2023, there were 1,603 primary government schools in NSW, with a total enrolment of 471,970 and an average class size of 23.3 students (CESE, 2024). These schools were deemed in-scope for this study while other schools such as government schools for specific purposes or non-government schools (which include private schools, Catholic schools, Steiner schools etc.) were out-of-scope.
A sample of 100 NSW government primary schools was drawn to achieve a margin of error of approximately +/−10% at a 95% confidence interval. The sample included 100 schools and each of these had three replacement schools that had similar characteristics.
This sample of NSW government primary schools provided the sample of the overall population, while the target of this survey was qualified teachers working at the primary school level. These qualified teachers included classroom teachers, release from face-to-face (RFF) teachers, non-teaching and teaching executives.
The school sample was stratified across school location and socioeconomic status (SES) using the Socio-Economic Index for Areas (SEIFA). A sample frame using these stratification variables was developed which formed the basis for the research team to contact and invite schools to participate. As mentioned above, the study was aiming for 100 schools to participate, and the sample frame identified 100 schools, plus three replacement schools with similar profiles/characteristics for each of originally sampled school (making a total of 400 schools in the sample frame for potential contact/invitation).
A total of 95 schools agreed to participate in the study and a total of 706 teachers from these schools responded to the questionnaire. The participating schools were representative of NSW government primary schools.
Location and socioeconomic category of the school sample (n = 100) and the respondents’ schools (n = 95)
Data from 2023 was used to approximate the response rate of teachers at each school. To do this, the total enrolments at each school was divided by the full-time equivalent (FTE) teaching staff ratio in NSW government primary schools of one teacher for every 14.9 students
1
. An approximate response rate of 25% or more was seen at 40 schools, while around half of the sampled schools had an approximate response rate less than 20%. Primary Teachers’ Indication of What Content They Would Like to Have Covered in ITE (n = 599)
Instrument
This research used a survey originally developed for use in South Australia to provide an up-to-date picture of the key characteristics of primary teachers in the delivery of music learning (Felgate et al., 2024). The researchers adapted the instrument for use in NSW in conjuction with the NSW Department of Education, the NSW Teachers Federation and Music Education: Right from the Start.
The online survey contained 58 items (see Taylor & Edwards, 2025 for a copy of the full set of questions). These were mainly presented with either binary scales (e.g. No/Yes responses) and four-point Likert scales (e.g. Strongly Disagree/Disagree/Agree/Strongly Agree and Never/Sometimes/Mostly/Always). Some descriptive set response categories were also used, and four open response questions.
The survey collected information from primary teachers focussing on the eight key areas respondent characteristics (7 questions), school facilities (4 questions), initial teacher education (10 questions), music teaching confidence and professional learning (8 questions), music education in your school (11 questions), nature of your music teaching (9 questions), perceived benefits of music (5 questions) and student responsiveness (3 questions).
Overall, the survey took approximately 10–15 minutes to complete.
Procedure
Ethics Approval was granted by ACER’s Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) which is registered with the NHMRC (HREC-0212). Ethics clearance was also granted from NSW SERAP 2 (approval: SERAP RR2024002).
An email was sent out inviting schools to participate in the survey. Through this time until the second last week of term, contact was made with schools using emails and phone calls to recruit and encourage participation.
The survey was administered online using the licensed Qualtrics survey platform over a 4-week period. Emails were sent to school coordinators who were asked to pass those on to all in-scope teachers, that is, all qualified teachers at each participating school. Each school had an individualised link that allowed us to track response rates at a school level. Participants had the option to pause and resume the questionnaire later or withdraw from completing the questionnaire at any time by closing their internet browser.
Data Analysis
The IBM SPSS Statistics 29 program was used to clean and analyse the data. As most of the questions in the survey were non-mandatory, and as some questions were only asked of subsets of teachers, not all questions were answered by all teachers who participated in the survey. The number of teachers that answered each section of questions is indicated in every table or figure in the results section of this article.
Results
Key Characteristics of Responding Primary Teachers – Demographics
Key demographics of primary teachers in NSW who deliver music learning (n = 706)
Showing that the study had a wide spread of teachers responding to the survey (and not musically biased), only 17% reported “being musical”, 46% reported to “knowing a bit about music and have some music skills” while 36% reported that they were “not musical” (Table 2).
Key Characteristics of Responding Primary Teachers – Initial Teacher Education
Everyone is musical. Being musical means understanding and expressing yourself no matter who you are through music, whether this be through playing an instrument, singing, or creating songs. It also involves appreciating and connecting with rhythm, melody, and harmony. (Female teacher from a low SES, major city school)
Teachers were asked a series of questions regarding their ITE. Those who responded to the questions in this section (n = 628) undertook their ITE at 28 different Australian universities and a few international universities. More than half of the respondents had completed an undergraduate course (57%), a further 26% completed a postgraduate course and 17% completed a diploma.
While more than two-fifths of all respondents have been teaching for more than 15 years, it is likely that music ITE has changed significantly over this time. We also note that respondents were asked to recall their experience of ITE, which may overestimate or underestimate their actual experience. During their ITE, 56% said that compulsory music education content was taught “as a component of a generic arts subject”, 18% were taught music as a discrete subject, 13% were taught “within an integrated curriculum subject in their course” and a further 13% reported that music was not taught at all. Of the teachers who answered questions about their ITE, 61% had covered music fundamentals, 37% had learnt how to teach music, and 34% had instruction on how to integrate music across the curriculum (respondents could choose more than one response to this question).
Over half of the respondents reported having fewer than 10 hours of their ITE dedicated to music education.
Given the limited hours of music content reported in their ITE, it is not surprising that 82% of respondents felt there wasn’t enough time dedicated to music to adequately prepare them to teach up to the Year 6 curriculum. However, a greater proportion of respondents who were music specialists or said they were musical reported that there was enough time devoted to music in their ITE (38% and 29%, respectively) than both those who were not musical (13%) and those that said they know a bit about music and have some skills (18%). Additionally, the perception of insufficient time devoted to music in ITE was similar among those with up to 10 years of teaching experience (83%) and those with more than 10 years of experience (81%).
Teachers responded that the most useful aspects of the music education content in their ITE were “listening activities for children” (35%), “learning how to teach music” (32%), “using and developing resources/resource folder” (28%) – teachers were able to select more than one response. More than a third of respondents reported that no activities were useful (35%) (if teachers selected “none” they could not also select other options).
When asked which type of content teachers would have liked to cover more in their ITE, integrating music was the most frequently selected option (61%) while all other responses were selected by more than 40% of respondents (see Figure 1). Twenty-five per cent of respondents had undertaken other musical training outside of their ITE. Primary Teachers’ Agreement With Statements About Quality of Professional Learning in Music and Music Being a Core Activity (n = 629)
Key Characteristics of Responding Primary Teachers – Experience
Enjoying music... Teachers shouldn’t second guess other people’s gifts or talents based on performance. I wasn’t exposed to music as a child, and I was told many times I wasn’t musical. It was a lie. I picked up an instrument later on and really enjoyed learning how to play it and still do. (Male teacher from a high SES, major city school) Too hard. Unfamiliar. Unsure how to use and teach music effectively. Struggling to fit into a week. Need help and ways to integrate music into teaching programs effectively. (Female teacher from a low SES, major city school)
When teachers were asked if they were happy to teach all curriculum subjects, more than four out of every five teachers responded that they were (83%). More than two-thirds (69%) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they saw music as a core activity in the national curriculum (see Figure 2). This indicates a strong consensus on the importance of music education in schools suggesting that many teachers recognise the value of music as a fundamental component of a well-rounded education, contributing to students’ overall development and learning experience. Primary teachers’ preferences for professional learning (n=174) and support for music education (n = 634)
Despite music being seen as a core educational activity, most of the teachers had not accessed professional learning focused on music during their teaching career with more than four in five responding teachers either disagreeing or strongly disagreeing that they had access to high quality professional learning in music (82%) (Figure 2). Of the 174 respondents who had accessed professional learning, 55% had done so to improve their own music skills, 47% had covered how to plan sequential music learning experiences for students and 36% had covered improvement in their ability to embed music learning into everyday teaching practices (Figure 3).
Among the types of support desired by music education teachers, 61% expressed a preference for professional development (PD) sessions focused on music, while 59% indicated a need for in-class support from a music specialist (Figure 3). Only 7% of respondents reported that they did not require additional support for music education.
Where is Music Learning Being Delivered – School Facilities
I think my principal values music. She has spent money making sure we have instruments to use and a good program to follow. (Male teacher from a major city school, medium SES)
Primary teachers’ report of facilities and support for music learning (n = 706)
Teachers were asked to profile the type and quantity of instruments available to them at their school. Percussion was the most available instrument group (70%), string instruments were reported as being available by 37% of teachers, 34% of teachers reported that wind instruments were available, and 19% of teachers had brass instruments at their school while 39% of teachers had other instruments available at their school. Between 27 and 45% of teachers responded that they did not know whether they had specific types of instruments at their school to support learning (for each category of wind, brass, percussion and string instruments).
How is Music Learning Delivered in Schools
Parents love to watch their children perform (usually by singing) and are generally happy to have their children attend external music performances at school. (Female teacher from a low SES, major city school)
Most teachers reported that music education was provided as classroom-based music experiences and activities (81%), while just over half said that it was part of classroom-based arts experiences and activities (music integrated with arts) (Figure 4). Choral and vocal music programmes (41%) and instrumental music programmes (37%) were also provided in respondents’ schools. Primary Teachers’ Reports of the Format(s) of Music Education Provided (n = 617)
Figure 5 shows the frequency and duration of music lessons, as reported by teachers. Music was most often taught at responding teachers’ school during one term of each year (50%). During the terms it is offered, music is mostly taught during 1 day of the week (85%) and for up to 1 hour of that day (73%). Primary Teachers’ Reports of the Frequency and Duration of Music Lessons (n = 617)
Primary teachers’ reports of how music is taught (n = 617)
When and What Music Learning is Being Delivered
I love being a part of the program and teaching my students how to play the violin. I think it is a great opportunity and experience and something that I would have loved to be a part of. I do like the increased amount of music theory and notation that is being incorporated and more efficiently taught in the program. (Male teacher from a low SES, major city school.)
Teachers were asked questions about the nature of their music teaching with only 32% reporting that they teach music to their class on a regular basis and 73% reporting that they prefer to teach music using a pre-recorded music lesson (rather than lead their own).
Figure 6 presents teachers’ reports of what they focus on when they are teaching music. Teachers most commonly focus on whole class activities (87%), responding to music through movement/dance (67%) and listening to music (66%). Primary Teachers’ Reports of Use of Various Activities During Music Teaching (n = 603)
Teachers also reported linking and integrating music into their classrooms in many ways – 45% of respondents integrate music into other curriculum areas, 44% find it easier to teach music when it is linked with other subjects, and 42% link music with other subjects in their teaching, such as during topic work.
Teachers were also asked what would allow them to teach more music, with 75% indicating a need for more expertise/training, 67% “access to more resources”, 61% needing “more time” and 32% selecting “greater space”.
Formal assessment of music was undertaken by just under half of the responding teachers (49%) with around one-third reporting that they used informal assessment (35%). For those teachers who reported that music was not assessed at their school (17% of total sample), 40% reported that it was “difficult to assess” while 28% said that “students do music for pleasure”.
Primary Teachers’ Perceived Benefits of Music Learning
Parents value the music education program at my school. They value opportunities to see their child performing (be it singing, instrumental or in a school musical). Our music education program promotes community engagement. Parents also elect for their child to participate in private music tuition (Female teacher from a high SES, major city school) Our Principal deeply values music education. She leads by example, embedding music education in our programs across the year, with a highlight being our whole school musical, which each year has 100% student engagement and participation. Through the leadership of our principal, our staff, students and parent community grow to understand the importance of music education and through this leadership, music education is a constant and valued part of our school culture. (Female teacher from a high SES, major city school)
More than three-quarters of responding teachers found that music was very important or important to a students’ educational experience. A greater proportion of teachers who described themselves as musical responded that music was very important to a students’ educational experience (66%) compared to those teachers who knew a bit about music (31%) or who described themselves as not musical (13%).
Teachers perceived many benefits of music education (Figure 7) including improved cognitive connectivity and efficiency (97% agreed or strongly agreed), decreased stress and anxiety (96% agreed or strongly agreed), enhanced engagement, wellbeing, personal/social learning (95% agreed or strongly agreed), improved learning capacity (94% agreed or strongly agreed), improved self-regulation (94% agreed or strongly agreed), improved social skills and personal wellbeing (93% agreed or strongly agreed), economic, cultural & social benefits for community (91% agreed or strongly agreed) and increased school status and cohesion (91% agreed or strongly agreed). Primary Teachers’ Perceptions of Benefits of Music Education, Percentage Who Strongly Agreed or Agreed With Each Statement (n = 591)
Teachers were asked about their thoughts on the impact of music education by asking how regularly they observed music education leading to a set of student outcomes, with response options of never, sometimes, mostly or always. Responses of mostly and always were combined and are presented in Figure 8. Primary Teachers’ Perceptions of Music Education’s Positive Impacts on Students, Percentage Who Responded Mostly and Always (n = 541)
More than 50% of teachers indicated that music education mostly or always led to increased self-expression (61%), increased student participation (58%), improved teacher-student relationships (54%), increased self-esteem and confidence (53%), teachers recognising previously unseen abilities in students (52%) and increased involvement of families and wider community in students’ schooling (50%).
Discussion
While most teachers recognise the importance of music education for students’ educational experience and responded they were happy to teach all the curriculum subjects, there are gaps in their training and confidence to teach music. One of the most notable gaps identified in the survey was the insufficient preparation of teachers to deliver music education. A minority of respondents felt there was enough time devoted in their ITE to teach music up to the year six curriculum, which mirrors the findings in South Australia (Felgate et al., 2024). This lack of preparation is further exacerbated by the fact that most teachers have not accessed professional learning in music since beginning their careers (the reverse of findings in South Australia, Felgate et al., 2024). By improving ITE and offering more professional development opportunities, teachers can be empowered with the skills and confidence needed to provide high quality music education. This renewed focus on professional growth will likely lead to an enriched learning environment for students.
Encouragingly, teachers who are already musical feel confident in teaching music, and with additional support, this confidence can be extended to all teachers. Addressing these training needs will undoubtedly elevate the overall quality of music instruction in primary schools.
The study underscores the necessity of providing adequate resources and support within schools. In contrast to the South Australian findings where more than half of all respondents indicated their school had a budget set aside for music activities (Felgate et al., 2024), a minority of teachers in NSW reported that they had a budget set aside for music activities. By ensuring schools have access to the right resources such as quality musical instruments, dedicated music spaces, and financial support, we can create an environment where music education thrives.
Understanding the nature of music teaching provides insights into the types of activities and focus areas that engage students and foster their musical development. In the current study, just over a quarter of responding teachers indicated that they built on skills and knowledge developed in previous years. This suggests that many students are not receiving a sequential music education that progresses each year which Collins et al., 2020 identify as a requirement for a quality music education.
Around half of the responding teachers recognised the value of integrating music with other subjects and with the right resources, this can be more effectively achieved. Three-quarters wanted more expertise or training while two-thirds noted that access to more resources would allow them to teach more music. Addressing these resource gaps will ensure that all students benefit from a comprehensive and well-rounded music education.
Despite these challenges, the study reveals the significant and multifaceted benefits of music education. Nearly all teachers reported on the many positive impacts on students’ lives including improved cognitive connectivity and efficiency, decreased stress and anxiety, enhanced engagement, wellbeing, personal/social learning, improved learning capacity, improved self-regulation, improved social skills and personal wellbeing, economic, cultural & social benefits for community and increased school status and cohesion. Additionally, most teachers reported that music education supports reading and numeracy skills and improves behaviour.
The study found that more than half of teachers agreed that a music education leads to increased self-expression, participation and improved teacher-student relationships. Teachers observed boosts in students’ self-esteem and confidence, helping them to express themselves more freely. Moreover, the inclusion of music in the curriculum was reported to enhance family and community engagement, further enriching the educational experience.
These findings highlight the transformative power of music education, which extends far beyond musical skills to broader educational and personal benefits. By fostering a supportive and resource-rich environment, schools can help students fully realise these advantages and thrive both academically and personally.
Limitations
The current study has a number of limitations that must be acknowledged. Firstly, the sample was restricted to schools in a single sector (government) within a single state (NSW). The findings may not be generalisable to schools and teachers in other jurisdictions. Secondly, the survey was limited to respondents’ perceptions and relied on recollection of experiences of ITE.
Future Directions
The findings from this study provide a clear roadmap for future initiatives aimed at enhancing music education in NSW primary schools. Key areas for focus include enhanced teacher training, professional development, resource allocation, curriculum integration and community engagement.
Enhanced teacher training would look to the development of comprehensive ITE programs that include robust music education components to better prepare teachers. Ongoing professional learning opportunities need to be offered to help teachers build confidence and expertise in music education. Resources need to be better allocated to ensure that schools have access to quality musical instruments, dedicated music spaces, and financial support for music activities. Widespread integration of music with other subjects should be promoted to create a cohesive and interdisciplinary learning experience. While community engagement would look to encourage family and community involvement in music education to foster a supportive environment for students.
Conclusion
The findings from the NSW Primary Teachers’ Survey on music education offer a comprehensive insight into the current landscape of music instruction in government primary schools in NSW. These results shed light on both the challenges and the positive impacts of music education, providing a critical foundation for future improvements.
By addressing gaps in teacher training, providing adequate resources, and fostering a supportive environment, policymakers and teachers can work towards ensuring that all primary school children in NSW have access to high-quality, sequential music education. The benefits of music education are clear, and with focused efforts, the educational experience can be enhanced for all students, nurturing their creativity, cognitive abilities and personal growth.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) administered the survey. This research was commissioned by Alberts’ Music Education: Right from the Start initiative and supported by the NSW Department of Education and the NSW Teachers Federation.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Alberts | The Tony Foundation and Sound NSW.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.