Based on studies showing health advantages for breastfeeding mothers and their infants, pediatricians and other breastfeeding advocates encourage new mothers to breastfeed their babies for at least the first six months of their infants’ lives, arguing that breast milk is best for infants, families, and society, and it is cost free. Few empirical studies, however, document how the decision to breastfeed instead of formula-feed is associated with women’s post-birth earnings. This is an important omission, given that the majority of women today work for pay, and many work in job environments incompatible with breastfeeding. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, our results show that mothers who breastfeed for six months or longer suffer more severe and more prolonged earnings losses than do mothers who breastfeed for shorter durations or not at all. The larger post-birth drop in earnings for long-duration breastfeeders is due to a larger reduction in labor supply. We discuss the implications of these findings for gender equality at home and at work.
AlbanesiStefaniaOlivettiClaudia. 2009. “Gender Roles and Medical Progress.” Working Paper 14873, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
2.
American Academy of Pediatrics. 2005. “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk.” Pediatrics115:496–506.
3.
ArunShoba V.ArunThankom G.BorooahVani K.2004. “The Effect of Career Breaks on the Working Lives of Women.” Feminist Economics10:65–84.
4.
BakerMichaelMilliganKevin. 2008. “Maternal Employment, Breastfeeding, and Health: Evidence from Maternity Leave Mandates.” Journal of Health Economics27:871–87.
5.
BallThomas M.BennettDavid M.2001. “The Economic Impact of Breastfeeding.” Pediatric Clinics of North America48:253–62.
6.
Barber-MaddenRosemaryPetschekMarybeth AlbanesePakterJean. 1987. “Breastfeeding and the Working Mother: Barriers and Intervention Strategies.” Journal of Public Health Policy8:531–41.
7.
BaumslagNaomiMichelsDia L.1995. Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.
8.
BliesePaul D.PloyhartRobert E.2002. “Growth Modeling Using Random Coefficient Models: Model Building, Testing, and Illustrations.” Organizational Research Methods5:362–87.
9.
BlumLinda M.1999. At the Breast: Ideologies of Breastfeeding and Motherhood in the Contemporary United States. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
10.
BudigMichelle J.EnglandPaula. 2001. “The Wage Penalty for Motherhood.” American Sociological Review66:204–225.
11.
CarterPam. 1995. Feminism, Breasts, and Breastfeeding. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
ChatterjiPinkaFrickKevin D.2005. “Does Returning to Work After Childbirth Affect Breastfeeding Practices?” Review of Economics of the Household3:315–35.
14.
CohenRonaMrtekMarsha B.MrtekRobert G.1995. “Comparison of Maternal Absenteeism and Infant Illness Rates among Breast-Feeding and Formula-Feeding Women in Two Corporations.” American Journal of Health Promotion10:148–51.
15.
ConnollySaraGregoryMary. 2009. “The Part-Time Pay Penalty: Earnings Trajectories of British Women.” Oxford Economic Papers61:i76–i97.
16.
DraperSusan B.1996. “Breast-Feeding as a Sustainable Resource System.” American Anthropologist98:258–65.
17.
FeinSarah B.RoeBrian. 1998. “The Effect of Work Status on Initiation and Duration of Breast-Feeding.” American Journal of Public Health88: 1042–1046.
18.
FildesValerie A.1986. Breasts, Bottles and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
19.
GaltryJudith. 1997. “Sucking and Silence in the USA: The Costs and Benefits of Breastfeeding.” Feminist Economics3:1–24.
20.
GatrellCaroline Jane. 2007. “Secrets and Lies: Breastfeeding and Professional Paid Work.” Social Science and Medicine65:393–404.
21.
GersonKathleen. 1985. Hard Choices: How Women Decide About Work, Career, and Motherhood. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
22.
GielenAndrea CarlsonFadenRuth R.O’CampoPatriciaBrownC. HendricksPaieDavid M.1991. “Maternal Employment during the Early Postpartum Period: Effects on Initiation and Continuation of Breast-Feeding.” Pediatrics87:298–305.
23.
GuendelmanSylviaKosaJessica LangPearlMichelleGrahamSteveGoodmanJuliaKharraziMartin. 2009. “Juggling Work and Breastfeeding: Effects of Maternity Leave and Occupational Characteristics.” Pediatrics123:e38–e46.
24.
HaiderSteven J.JacknowitzAlisonSchoeniRobert F.2003. “Welfare Work Requirements and Child Well-Being: Evidence from the Effects on Breast-Feeding.” Demography40:479–97.
25.
HausmanBernice L.2003. Mother’s Milk: Breastfeeding Controversies in American Culture. New York: Routledge.
26.
HausmanBernice L.2007. “Things (Not) to Do with Breasts in Public: Maternal Embodiment and the Biocultural Politics of Infant Feeding.” New Literary History38:479–504.
27.
HaysSharon. 1996. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
28.
HochschildArlie. 1989.The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution At Home, with Anne Machung. New York: Viking.
29.
HoxJoopStoelReinoud D.2005. “Multilevel and SEM Approaches to Growth Curve Modeling.” Pp. 1296–1305 in Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioral Science, Vol. 3, edited by EverittB. S.ChichesterD. C. Howell, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
30.
HuberJoan. 2007. On the Origins of Gender Inequality. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
31.
JacknowitzAlison. 2008. “The Role of Workplace Characteristics in Breastfeeding Practices.” Women & Health47:87–111.
32.
JohnstonMarina L.EspositoNoreen. 2007. “Barriers and Facilitators for Breastfeeding among Working Women in the United States.” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing36:9–20.
33.
KhouryAmal J.MoazzemS. WakerulJarjouraChad M.CarothersCathyHintonAgnes. 2005. “Breast-Feeding Initiation in Low-Income Women: Role of Attitudes, Support, and Perceived Control.” Women’s Health Issues15:64–72.
34.
KimbroRachel Tolbert. 2006. “On-the-Job Moms: The Return to Work and Breastfeeding Duration.” Maternal and Child Health Journal10:19–26.
35.
KuklaRebecca. 2006. “Ethics and Ideology in Breastfeeding Advocacy Campaigns.” Hypatia21:157–80.
36.
KurinijNatalieShionoPatricia H.RhoadsGeorge G.1988. “Breast-Feeding Incidence and Duration in Black and White Women.” Pediatrics81: 365–71.
LawJules. 2000. “The Politics of Breastfeeding: Assessing Risk, Dividing Labor.” Signs25:407–450.
39.
LindbergLaura D.1996. “Women’s Decisions about Breastfeeding and Maternal Employment.” Journal of Marriage and the Family58:239–51.
40.
LuoYeWaiteLinda J.2005. “The Impact of Childhood and Adult SES on Physical, Mental, and Cognitive Well-Being in Late Life.” Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences60B:S93–S101.
41.
MartinMelissa. 2007. “Breastfeeding in the Workplace: Accommodating Women and Benefiting Employers.” Working paper available at (http://works.bepress.com/melissa_martin/1).
McCarter-SpauldingDeborah. 2008. “Is Breastfeeding Fair? Tensions in Feminist Perspectives on Breastfeeding and the Family.” Journal of Human Lactation24:206–212.
44.
MincerJacobPolachekSolomon. 1974. “Family Investments in Human Capital: Earnings of Women.” Journal of Political Economy82:S76–S110.
45.
MurtaghLindseyMoultonAnthony D.2010. “Working Mothers, Breastfeeding, and the Law.” American Journal of Public Health101:217–23.
46.
NagyEmeseOrvosH.PálA.KovácsL.LovelandK.2001. “Breastfeeding Duration and Previous Breastfeeding Experience.” Acta Paediatrica90:51–56.
RippeyoungPhyllis L. F.NoonanMary C.Forthcoming. “Breastfeeding and the Gendering of Infant Care.” Chapter in Beyond Health, Beyond Choice: Breastfeeding Constraints and Realities, edited by HausmanB. L.SmithP. HallLabbokM.Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
49.
RoeBrianWhittingtonLeslie A.FeinSara BeckTeislMario F.1999. “Is There Competition between Breast-Feeding and Maternal Employment?” Demography36:157–71.
RyanAlan S.WenjunZhouAcostaAndrew. 2002. “Breastfeeding Continues to Increase into the New Millennium.” Pediatrics110:1103–1109.
52.
RyanAlan S.WenjunZhouArensbergMary Beth. 2006. “The Effect of Employment Status on Breastfeeding in the United States.” Women’s Health Issues16:243–51.
53.
SchmiedVirginiaLuptonDeborah. 2001. “Blurring the Boundaries: Breastfeeding and Maternal Subjectivity.” Sociology of Health and Illness23: 234–50.
54.
SingerJudith D.WillettJohn B.2003. Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
55.
SmithJulie P.InghamLindy H.2005. “Mother’s Milk and Measures of Economic Output.” Feminist Economics11:41–62.
56.
SolisHilda L.HallKeith. 2010. “Women in the Labor Force: A Databook.” Report 1026. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor and U.S. Department of Labor Statistics (http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2010.htm).
57.
SpiveyChristy. 2005. “Time Off at What Price? The Effects of Career Interruptions on Earnings.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review59:119–40.
58.
StonePamela. 2007. Opting Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home. Berkeley: University of California Press.
59.
TaylorErinWallaceLori Ebert. 2010. “Feminist Breastfeeding Advocacy and the Problem of Guilt.” Presented at the 5th Feminism and Breastfeeding Symposium, Greensboro, NC.
Unites States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 2000. HHS Blueprint for Action on Breastfeeding. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Women’s Health.
62.
United States Department of Labor. 2006. NLSY79 User’s Guide: A Guide to the 1979–2004 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth Data. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
63.
Van EsterikPennyGreinerTed. 1981. “Breastfeeding and Women’s Work: Constraints and Opportunities.” Studies in Family Planning12:184–97.
64.
VisnessCynthiaKennedyKathy I.1997. “Maternal Employment and Breast-Feeding: Findings from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey.” American Journal of Public Health87:945–50.
65.
WallGlenda. 2001. “Moral Constructions of Motherhood in Breastfeeding Discourse.” Gender and Society15:592–610.
66.
WeimerJon. 2001. “The Economic Benefits of Breastfeeding: A Review and Analysis.” Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Food Assistance and Nutrition Research, Report No. 13.
67.
WolfJacqueline H.2003. “Low Breastfeeding Rates and Public Health in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health93:2000–2010.
68.
WolfJoan B.2007. “Is Breast Really Best? Risk and Total Motherhood in the National Breastfeeding Awareness Campaign.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law32:595–636.
69.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2003. Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
