The increasing entrance of women into the American workforce during the past few decades is undoubtedly one of the greatest societal changes Americans have experienced, with important effects on family structure, dynamics, and the social and psychological development of individual family members. This second part of a double issue presents research investigating but a few of the myriad effects of changes in the workforce on the family, including outcomes for children and their mothers, as well as issues of growing concern for dual-earner families. Articles in this issue focus on the identities of working mothers; outcomes of maternal employment for children, including attitudes toward work and family in young adulthood; concerns about after-school care and retirement planning within dual-earner families; and community responsiveness to working families.
Adams, G. A., & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work-family conflict, and strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 72-77.
2.
Alessandri, S. M. (1992). Effects of maternal work status in single-parent families on children's perception of self and family and school achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 417-433.
3.
Almeida, D. M., Maggs, J. L., & Galambos, N. L. (1993). Wives' employment hours and spousal participation in family work. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 233-244.
4.
Aryee, S., Luk, V., Leung, A., & Lo, S. (1999). Role stressors, interrole conflict, and well-being: The moderating influence of spousal support and coping behaviors among employed parents in Hong Kong. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 259-278.
5.
Aughinbaugh, A., & Gittleman, M. (2003). Maternal employment and adolescent risky behavior(U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Working Paper No. 366). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://econwpa.wustl.edu/eps/lab/papers
6.
Barnett, R. C., & Gareis, K. C. (2000). Reduced-hours job-role quality and life satisfaction among married women physicians with children. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 358-364.
7.
Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56, 781-796.
8.
Barnett, R. C., Marshall, N. L., Raudenbush, S. W., & Brennan, R. T. (1993). Gender and the relationship between job experiences and psychological distress: A study of dual-earner couples. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 64, 794-806.
9.
Baruch, G. K., & Barnett, R. C. (1986). Role quality, multiple role involvement, and psychological wellbeing in midlife women. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 51, 578-585.
10.
Baydar, N., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Effects of maternal employment and child-care arrangements on preschoolers' cognitive and behavioral outcomes: Evidence from the children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Developmental Psychology, 27, 932-945.
11.
Bielby, W. T., & Bielby, D. D. (1989). Family ties: Balancing commitments to work and family in dual earner households. American Sociological Review, 54, 776-789.
12.
Bjoenberg, U. (1998). Well-being among Swedish employed mothers with preschool children. In K. Orth-Gomer & M. Chesney (Eds.), Women, stress, and heart disease (pp. 133-149). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13.
Bond, J. T., Swanberg, J., & Galinsky, E. (1998). The national study of the changing workforce.New York: Families and Work Institute.
14.
Bond, J. T., Thompson, C., Galinsky, E., & Protas, D. (2002). The 2002 national study of the changing workforce.New York: Families and Work Institute.
15.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). Statistical tables: Employment and the labor force. Retrieved September 22, 2003, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/rtaw/stattab2.htm
16.
California Children & Families Commission. (2005). First 5 California: First 5 preschool for all. Retrieved from http://www.ccfc.ca.gov
17.
Caruso, D. A. (1996). Maternal employment status, mother-infant interaction, and infant development in day care and non–day care groups. Child & Youth Care Forum, 25, 125-134.
18.
Carvel, J. (2003, November 14). Working mothers “bad for children.”The Guardian. Available from http://www.guardian.co.uk
19.
Crouter, A. C., Bumpas, M. F., Head, M. R., & McHale, S. M. (2001). Implications of overwork and over-load for the quality of men's family relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 404-416.
20.
Galambos, N. L., & Walters, B. J. (1992). Work hours, schedule inflexibility, and stress in dual-earner spouses. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 24, 290-302.
21.
Gorey, K. M. (2001). Early childhood education: A meta-analytic affirmation of the short- and long-term benefits of educational opportunity. School Psychology Quarterly, 16, 9-30.
22.
Gottfried, A. E., Gottfried, A. W., Bathurst, K., & Killian, C. (1999). Maternal and dual-earner employment: Family environment, adaptations, and the developmental impingement perspective. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Parenting and child development in “nontraditional” families (pp. 15-37). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
Hadeed, J., & Sylva, K. (1999). Center care and education in Bahrain: Does it benefit children's development?Early Child Development & Care, 157, 67-84.
24.
Halpern, D. F. (2005). Psychology at the intersection of work and family: Recommendations for employers, working families, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 60, 1-13.
25.
Harvey, E. (1999). Short-term and long-term effects of early parental employment on children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Developmental Psychology, 35, 445-459.
26.
Helms-Erikson, H., Tanner, J. L., Crouter, A. C., & McHale, S. M. (2000). Do women's provider-role attitudes moderate the links between work and family?Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 658-670.
27.
Hill, E. J., Jackson, A. D., & Martinengo, G. (2006). Twenty years of work and family at International Business Machines Corporation. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(9), 1165-1183.
28.
Hoffman, L. W. (2000). Maternal employment: Effects of social context. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 147-176). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.
29.
Hughes, D. L., & Galinsky, E. (1994). Gender, job and family conditions, and psychological symptoms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 251-270.
30.
Hyde, J. S., Essex, M. J., Clark, R., & Klein, M. H. (2001). Maternity leave, women's employment, and marital incompatibility. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 476-491.
31.
Jackson, A. P., & Huang, C. C. (2000). Parenting stress and behavior among single mothers of preschoolers: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Journal of Social Service Research, 26, 29-42.
32.
Karoly, L. A., Greenwood, P. W., Everingham, S. S., Houbé, J., Kilburn, M. R., Rydell, C. P., et al. (2000). Investing in our children: What we know and don't know about the costs and benefits of early childhood interventions (MR8987). Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
33.
Love, J. M., Harrison, L., Sagi-Schwartz, A., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Ross, C. Ungerer, J. A., et al. (2003). Child care quality matters: How conclusions may vary with context. Child Development, 74, 1021-1033.
34.
Makri-Botsari, E., & Makri, E. (2003). Maternal employment: Effects on her mental health and children's functional status. Psychological Studies, 48, 36-46.
35.
Marshall, N. L., & Barnett, R. C. (1993). Work-family strains and gains among two-earner couples. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 64-78.
36.
Menaghan, E. G. (2005). Work-family challenges for low-income parents and their children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(2), 537-538.
37.
Moen, P. (1999). The Cornell couples and careers study. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Employment and Family Careers Institute.
38.
Nelson, G., Westhues, A., & MacLeod, J. (2003). A meta-analysis of longitudinal research on preschool prevention programs for children. Prevention & Treatment, 6(1). Available from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/
39.
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2003). Does amount of time spent in child care predict socioemotional adjustment during the transition to kindergarten?Child Development, 74, 976-1005.
40.
Oppenheimer, V. K. (1997). Women's employment and the gain to marriage: The specialization and trading model. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 431-453.
41.
Polasky, L. J., & Holahan, C. K. (1998). Maternal self-discrepancies, interrole conflict, and negative affect among married professional women with children. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 388-401.
42.
Ramey, C. T., Campbell, F. A., Burchinal, M., Skinner, M. L., Gardner, D. M., & Ramey, S. L. (2000). Persistent effects of early childhood education on high-risk children and their mothers. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 2-14.
43.
Schlafly, P. (2004, April 19). Good news, bad news about stay-at-home moms. Copley News Service. Available from http://www.townhall.com
44.
Trei, L. (2002, April 10). Child care left out of feminist revolution, Strober says. Stanford Report. Retrieved from http://ed.stanford.edu/suse/news-bureau
45.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2004). Table A-1: Years of school completed by people 25 years and over by age and sex: Selected years 1940 to 2004. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/education/tabA-1.pdf
46.
Vandell, D.L., & Ramanan, J. (1992). Effects of early and recent maternal employment on children from low-income families. Child Development, 63, 938-949.
47.
Venker, S. (2004). Seven myths of working mothers: Why children and (most) careers just don't mix. Dallas, TX: Spence.
48.
White, L., & Rogers, S. J. (2000). Economic circumstances and family outcomes: A review of the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1035-1051.
49.
Williams, R. E. (2001). Working mothers. Available from http://www.wayoflife.org
50.
Youngblut, J. M., Loveland-Cherry, C. J., & Horan, M. (1994). Maternal employment effects on families and preterm infants at 18 months. Nursing Research, 43, 331-337.
51.
Zimmerman, T. S., Haddock, S. A., Current, L. R., & Ziemba, S. (2003). Intimate partnership: Foundation to the successful balance of family and work. American Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 107-124.
