Color is a ubiquitous perceptual experience, yet little scientific information about the influence of color on affect, cognition, and behavior is available. Accordingly, we have developed a general model of color and psychological functioning, which we present in this article. We also describe a hypothesis derived from this model regarding the influence of red in achievement contexts. In addition, we report a series of experiments demonstrating that a brief glimpse of red evokes avoidance motivation and undermines intellectual performance, and that it has these effects without conscious awareness or intention. We close with thoughts on the need for rigorous scientific work on color psychology.
ElliotA.J.MaierM.A.MollerA.C.FriedmanR.MeinhardtJ. (2007). Color and psychological functioning: The effect of red on performance attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 154–168.
6.
ElliotA.J.MaierM.A.BinserM.J.FriedmanR.PekrunR. (2007). The effect of red on avoidance behavior in achievement contexts. Manuscript submitted for publication.
7.
ElliotA.J.NiestaD. (2007). [The effect of red on sexual attraction]. Unpublished raw data.
8.
FrankM.G.GilovichT. (1988). The dark side of self and social perception: Black uniforms and aggression in professional sports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 74–85.
9.
GoldsteinK. (1942). Some experimental observations concerning the influence of colors on the function of the organism. Occupational Therapy and Rehabilitation, 21, 147–151.
10.
HutchingsJ. (1997). Color in plants, animals, and man. InNassauK.(Ed.), Color for Science, Art, and Technology (pp. 222–246). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
11.
LevyI.B. (1984). Research into the psychological meaning of color. American Journal of Art Therapy, 23, 58–62.
12.
MaierM.A.ElliotA.J.LichtenfeldS. (2007) Nonconscious avoidance motivation mediates the negative effect of red on intellectual performance. Manuscript submitted for publication.
13.
MollonJ.D. (1989). “Tho' she kneel'd in that place where they grow …”Journal of Experimental Biology, 146, 21–38.
14.
SchneirlaT. (1959). An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. InJonesM.(Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 1–42). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
15.
SetchellJ.M.WickingsE.J. (2005). Dominance, status signals, and coloration in male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). Ethology, 111, 25–50.
16.
SoldatA.S.SinclairR.C.MarkM.M. (1997). Color as an environmental processing cue: External affective cues can directly affect processing strategy without affecting mood. Social Cognition, 15, 55–71.
17.
StoneN.J.EnglishA.J. (1998). Task type, posters, and workspace color on mood, satisfaction, and performance. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 175–185.
18.
WhitfieldT.W.WiltshireT.J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 116, 387–412.
