Light-duty transportation is powered by gasoline and biofuels, and more recently electrical power. This paper explores the carbon footprint of liquid fuels using the Argonne-AFLEET [Alternative Fuel Life-Cycle Environmental and Economic] tool and examines the future of gasoline and ethanol fuels given the rapid development of electric vehicles. We find both renewable and non-renewable liquid fuels use will persist for 50 years. Renewable liquid fuels will be important in supplementing gasoline during the transitioning of internal combustion engines to electrical vehicles.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
US Environmental ProtectionAgency, of TransportationO, QualityA.The 2022 EPA Automotive Trends Report: Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Fuel Economy, and Technology since 1975 (EPA-420-R-22-029, December 2022).
2.
DrankaGG, FerreiraP. Electric vehicles and biofuels synergies in the Brazilian energy system. Energies, 2020; 13:4423. doi: 10.3390/EN13174423.
3.
dos SantosACF, OvertonJC, SzetoR, et al.New strategy for liquefying corn stover pellets. Bioresour Technol, 2021; 341:125773. doi: 10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2021.125773.
4.
CohnDR, BrombergL, HeywoodJB. Direct injection ethanol boosted gasoline engines: Biofuel leveraging for cost effective reduction of oil dependence and CO2 emissions. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 2005.
5.
GhoshA.Possibilities and challenges for the inclusion of the electric vehicle (EV) to reduce the carbon footprint in the transport sector: A review. Energies (Basel), 2020; 13(10):2602.
6.
QureshiF, YusufM, Arham KhanM, et al.A state-of-the-art review on the latest trends in hydrogen production, storage, and transportation techniques. Fuel, 2023; 340:127574. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.127574.
7.
ViswanathanV, ZeheD, IvanchevJ, et al.Simulation-assisted exploration of charging infrastructure requirements for electric vehicles in urban environments. J Comput Sci, 2016; 12:1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.jocs.2015.10.012.
8.
JonesB, Nguyen-TienV, ElliottRJR. The electric vehicle revolution: Critical material supply chains, trade and development. World Econ, 2023; 46(1):2-26. doi: 10.1111/TWEC.13345.
9.
ContestabileM, OfferGJ, SladeR, et al.Battery electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cells and biofuels. Which will be the winner? 2011. doi: 10.1039/c1ee01804c.
10.
Fuels Institute. Future Capabilities of Combustion Engines and Liquid Fuels. 2022.
11.
TernelC, BouterA, MelgarJ. Life cycle assessment of mid-range passenger cars powered by liquid and gaseous biofuels: Comparison with greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles and forecast to 2030. Transp Res D Transp Environ, 2021; 97:102897. doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2021.102897.
12.
NakamotoY, NishijimaD, KagawaS. The role of vehicle lifetime extensions of countries on global CO2 emissions. J Clean Prod, 2019; 207:1040–1046. doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.10.054.
13.
Hedges & Company. An analysis of average age of cars on the road. 2023. Available at: https://hedgescompany.com/blog/2022/02/how-old-are-cars/ (Last accessed June2023).
14.
BurnhamA.II. 2 AFLEET Tool (Argonne National Laboratory). Technology Integration. Department of Energy. 2017; pp 111.
15.
BorkowskiA, ZawiślakM. Comparative analysis of the life-cycle emissions of carbon dioxide emitted by battery electric vehicles using various energy mixes and vehicles with ICE. Combustion Engines, 2023; 192(1):3. doi: 10.19206/CE-147159.
16.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Electricity in theU.S. 2022. Available at: https://eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php.
17.
Fuels Institute. Life cycle analysis comparison for electric vehicles and internal combustion engines. 2022.
18.
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Transportation sector energy consumption. 2021.
19.
PatilA, EngelberthAS, LadischMR. Effect of biomass liquefaction on glucose and xylose prices predicted by National Renewable Energy Laboratory biochemical sugar model. Biof Bioprod Bioref, 2023; 17:46-55. doi: 10.1002/bbb.2450.
20.
ChomaEF, EvansJS, HammittJK, et al.Assessing the health impacts of electric vehicles through air pollution in the United States. Environ Int, 2020; 144. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106015.
21.
Energy Agency I. Global EV Outlook 2022 Securing supplies for an electric future. 2022.
22.
GhandiA, PaltsevS. Global CO2 impacts of light-duty electric vehicles. Transp Res D Transp Environ, 2020; 87:102524. doi: 10.1016/J.TRD.2020.102524.
23.
WangM, HanJ, DunnJB, et al.Well-to-wheels energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of ethanol from corn, sugarcane and cellulosic biomass for US use. Environ Res Lett, 2012; 7(4):045905. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045905.
24.
WangM, WuM, HuoH. Life-cycle energy and greenhouse gas emission impacts of different corn ethanol plant types. 2007. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/2/2/024001.
25.
ChenJ, FengS, IvanovaG, et al.Antecedents of electric vehicle purchase intention from the consumer's perspective: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 2023; 15:2878. doi: 10.3390/SU15042878.
26.
SlowikP, SearleS, BasmaH, et al.Analyzing the impact of the inflation reduction act on electric vehicle uptake in the United States. 2023.
27.
FayziyevPR, IkromovIA, AbduraximovAA, et al.Timeline: history of the electric car, trends and the future developments. Eurasian Res Bull, 2022; 6:89-94.
28.
RyanC.Oil Sector Mulls a Slippery Future, Wall Street Journal, June 30, 2023, B12.
