Spontaneous settling of certain aggregating microalgae or cyanobacteria could potentially alleviate the energy requirement in biomass harvesting. A locally isolated floc–forming marine cyanobacteria, Chroococcidiopsis sp., was initially grown indoor to study its self-settling efficiency; 97% of the biomass settled spontaneously in 1 h. Later, the strain was grown in outdoor raceway tanks (1 square meter) for 70 d. Every alternative day, 50% of the culture was harvested by self-settling, and the supernatant was recycled back to the tank. Average biomass productivities for the strain was 16.08 g/m2/d. The biomass had an average 2.26% water extractable phycobiliproteins that comprised of both phycocyanin (11.4 mg/g) and phycoerythrin (10.6 mg/g). Since Chroococcidiopsis sp. biomass can be harvested very efficiently, it would reduce the energy and cost of biomass production which are deemed necessary for microalgal animal feed and biofuel applications. Furthermore, its ability to produce high-value pigments will also make it economically very attractive from biorefinery approach.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Williams PJ leB, LaurensLML. Microalgae as biodiesel & biomass feedstocks: Review & analysis of the biochemistry, energetics & economics. Energ Environ Sci, 2010; 3:554. doi:10.1039/b924978h.
2.
ChistiY. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv, 2007; 25:294–306. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.001.
3.
BrennanL, OwendeP. Biofuels from microalgae—A review of technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products. Renew Sust Energ Rev, 2010; 14. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2009.10.009.
4.
ZhangYM, ChenH, HeCL, WangQ. Nitrogen starvation induced oxidative stress in an oil-producing green alga Chlorella sorokiniana C3. PLoS One, 2013; 8:1–12. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069225.
5.
BillerP, RossAB. Potential yields and properties of oil from the hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae with different biochemical content. Bioresour Technol, 2011; 102:215–225. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.028.
6.
EboibiBE, LewisDM, AshmanPJ, ChinnasamyS. Effect of operating conditions on yield and quality of biocrude during hydrothermal liquefaction of halophytic microalga Tetraselmis sp. Bioresour Technol, 2014; 170:20–29. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.07.083.
7.
HolmanBW, Malau-AduliAE. Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl), 2013; 97(4)615–623. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01328.x
8.
FarooqW, SuhWI, ParkMS, YangJW. Water use and its recycling in microalgae cultivation for biofuel application. Bioresour Technol, 2015; 184:73–81. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.140.
9.
YangJ, XuM, ZhangX, HuQ, SommerfeldM, ChenY. Life-cycle analysis on biodiesel production from microalgae: Water footprint and nutrients balance. Bioresour Technol, 2011; 102:159–165. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.017.
10.
PahlSL, LeeAK, KalaitzidisT, et al.Harvesting, Thickening and Dewatering Microalgae Biomass. In: BorowitzkaAM, MoheimaniRN, (eds). Algae for Biofuels and Energy, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2013, p. 165–185. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5479-9_10.
11.
PiresJCM, Alvim-FerrazMCM, MartinsFG, SimõesM. Carbon dioxide capture from flue gases using microalgae: Engineering aspects and biorefinery concept. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2012; 16:3043–3053. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.055.
12.
BarrosAI, GonçalvesAL, SimõesM, PiresJCM. Harvesting techniques applied to microalgae: A review. Renew Sustain Energ Rev, 2015; 41:1489–1500. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.037.
13.
UdumanN, QiY, DanquahMK, FordeGM, HoadleyA. Dewatering of microalgal cultures: A major bottleneck to algae-based fuels. J Renew Sustain Energ, 2010; 2. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3294480.
14.
BilliD. Subcellular integrities in Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCMEE 029 survivors after prolonged desiccation revealed by molecular probes and genome stability assays. Extremophiles, 2009; 13:49–57. doi:10.1007/s00792-008-0196-0.
15.
CockellCS, SchuergerAC, BilliD, FriedmannEI, PanitzC. Effects of a simulated martian UV flux on the cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis sp. 029. Astrobiology, 2005; 5:127–140. doi:10.1089/ast.2005.5.127.
16.
IgarashiY, HayashiNR, TerazonoK, et.al.Identification and characterization of phycobiliprotein from a thermophilic cyanobacterium, chroococcidiopsis sp. Strain TS-821. J Ferment Bioeng, 1997; 84(5):475–477.
17.
CaiolaMG, BilliD. Chroococcidiopsis from Desert to Mars. In: SeckbachJ, ed. Algae Cyanobacteria in Extreme Environments. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2007, p. 553–568. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6112-7_30.
18.
HayashiNR, TerazonoK, HasegawaN, KodamaT, IgarashiY. Identification and characterization of phycobiliprotein from a thermophilic cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis sp. strain TS-821. J Ferment Bioeng, 1997; 84:475–477.
19.
SaadaouiI, Al GhazalG, BounnitT, et al.Evidence of thermo and halotolerant Nannochloris isolate suitable for biodiesel production in Qatar Culture Collection of Cyanobacteria and Microalgae. Algal Res, 2016; 14:39–47. doi:10.1016/j.algal.2015.12.019.
20.
Sampath-WileyP, NeefusCD. An improved method for estimating R-phycoerythrin and R-phycocyanin contents from crude aqueous extracts of Porphyra (Bangiales, Rhodophyta). J Appl Phycol, 2007; 19:123–129. doi:10.1007/s10811-006-9118-7.
21.
KnightJA, AndersonS, RawleJM. Chemical basis of sulfo-phospho-vanillin reaction for estimating total serum lipids. Clin Chem, 1972; 18:199–202.
22.
DasP, ThaherMI, HakimMAQMA, Al-JabriHMSJ, AlghasalGSHS. A comparative study of the growth of Tetraselmis sp. in large scale fixed depth and decreasing depth raceway ponds. Bioresour Technol, 2016; 216:114–120. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.05.058.
23.
HuntleyME, JohnsonZI, BrownSL, et al.Demonstrated large-scale production of marine microalgae for fuels and feed. Algal Res, 2015; 10:249–265. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2015.04.016.
24.
WorkKA, HavensKE. Zooplankton grazing on bacteria and cyanobacteria in a eutrophic lake. J Plankton Res, 2003; 25; 1301–1306. doi:10.1093/plankt/fbg092.
25.
CohenE, KorenA, Malis AradS. A closed system for outdoor cultivation of microalgae. Biomass Bioenerg, 1991; 1:83–88. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(91)90030-G.
26.
Fon SingS, IsdepskyA, BorowitzkaMA, LewisDM. Pilot-scale continuous recycling of growth medium for the mass culture of a halotolerant Tetraselmis sp. in raceway ponds under increasing salinity: A novel protocol for commercial microalgal biomass production. Bioresour Technol, 2014; 161:47–54. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.03.010.
27.
HeQ, YangH, HuC. Culture modes and financial evaluation of two oleaginous microalgae for biodiesel production in desert area with open raceway pond. Bioresour Technol, 2016; 218:571–579. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.06.137.
28.
JiménezC, CossíoBR, NiellFX. Relationship between physicochemical variables and productivity in open ponds for the production of Spirulina: A predictive model of algal yield. Aquaculture, 2003; 221:331–345. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00123-6.
29.
LawsEA; Bidigare RPBN. Effect of growth rate and CO2 concentration on carbon isotopic fractionation by the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Limnol Oceanogr, 1997; 42:1552–1560. doi:http://dx.doi.org/.
30.
MatsumotoM, NojimaD, NonoyamaT, et al.Outdoor cultivation of marine diatoms for year-round production of biofuels. Mar Drugs, 2017; 15. doi:10.3390/md15040094.
31.
MehrabadiA, FaridMM, CraggsR. Variation of biomass energy yield in wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds. Algal Res, 2016; 15:143–151. doi:http://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.02.016.
32.
MoheimaniNR, BorowitzkaMA. The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds. J Appl Phycol, 2006; 18:703–712. doi:10.1007/s10811-006-9075-1.
ParkJBK, CraggsRJ, ShiltonAN. Wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds for biofuel production. Bioresour Technol, 2011; 102:35–42. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.158.
35.
RaesEJ, IsdepskyA, MuylaertK, BorowitzkaMA, MoheimaniNR. Comparison of growth of Tetraselmis in a tubular photobioreactor (Biocoil) and a raceway pond. J Appl Phycol, 2014; 26:247–255. doi:10.1007/s10811-013-0077-5.
36.
IshidaT, HasegawaN, HayashiNR, et al.Growth characteristics and dense culture of a thermophilic cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis sp. strain TS-821. J Ferment Bioeng, 1997; 83:571–576. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0922-338X(97)81139-7
37.
BilliD, CaiolaMG. Effects of nitrogen limitation and starvation on Chroococcidiopsis sp. (Chroococcales). New Phytol, 1996; 133:563–571. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1996.tb01925.x.
38.
SekarS, ChandramohanM. Phycobiliproteins as a commodity: Trends in applied research, patents and commercialization. J Appl Phycol, 2008; 20:113–136. doi:10.1007/s10811-007-9188-1
39.
Abdel-TawwabM, AhmadMH. Live Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) as a growth and immunity promoter for Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.), challenged with pathogenic Aeromonas hydrophila. Aquac Res, 2009; 40:1037–1046. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2009.02195.x
40.
Garcia AlbaL, et al.Hydrothermal treatment (HTT) of microalgae: Evaluation of the process as conversion method in an algae biorefinery concept. Energ Fuels, 2012; 26(1):642–657.
41.
NeveuxN, YuenAKL, JazrawiC, et al.Biocrude yield and productivity from the hydrothermal liquefaction of marine and freshwater green macroalgae. Bioresour Technol, 2014; 155:334–341.
42.
LengL, YuanX, HuangH, et al.The migration and transformation behavior of heavy metals during the liquefaction process of sewage sludge. Bioresour Technol, 2014; 167:144–150. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.05.119.
43.
BrownMR. The amino-acid and sugar composition of 16 species of microalgae used in mariculture. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol, 1991; 145:79–99. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(91)90007-J
44.
ChristakiE, KaratziaM, BonosE, Florou-PaneriP, KaratziasC. Effect of dietary Spirulina platensis on milk fatty acid profile of dairy cows. Asian J Anim Vet Adv, 2012; 7:597–604. doi:10.3923/ajava.2012.597.604
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
