This naturalistic inquiry examines the epistemological role of textual and conversational rhetoric between specialized scientists and citizen volunteers who work interdependently conducting research in the environmental sciences. Specifically, the everyday actions of Earthwatch Principal Investigators (PIs) are explored to identify rhetorical forms and functions of popularization employed during daily communication with citizen volunteers. In this unique opportunity to examine scientists communicating directly with the public during the actual process of research, insights are gained in relation to science production and representation. Interviews and materials of eight PIs reflect three alternative rhetorics: Inviting/Egalitarian, Social/Adventure and Technical/Normative. These rhetorics are examined from socialepistemological perspectives1 in order to consider their democratic implications.
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References
1.
Fuller, S. , 1993, Philosophy, Rhetoric and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press).
2.
Burnham, J. C. , 1987, How Superstition Won and Science Lost: Popularizing Science and Health in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press).
3.
Knorr-Cetina, Karin , 1981, The Manufacture of Knowledge (New York, NY: Pergamon Press).
4.
and Curtis, R., 1994, Narrative form and normative force: Baconian story-telling in popular science. Social Studies of Science, 24, 419-461.
5.
Curtis, R. , 1994, Narrative form and normative force: Baconian story-telling in popular science. Social Studies of Science, 24, 419-461.
6.
Knorr-Cetina, K. , 1981, The Manufacture of Knowledge (New York, NY: Pergamon Press).
7.
Fuller, S. , 1988, Social Epistemology: Science Technology and Society (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press).
8.
Earthwatch Expeditions, Inc. , 1995, Earthwatch (Watertown, MA).
9.
For example, from the 1995 summer issue: Community Interactions The Elephant Factor Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe—An estimated 20 000 elephants—part of the largest population left on the continent—live in this national park. As bulk consumers of vegetation (up to 300 kg a day) and water (200 liters or more a day), these huge nomadic mammals have the capacity to create, destroy and monopolize resources needed by other savanna-dwellers. What is the elephant's relationship to plant and animal communities? Do the elephantdug water holes, for instance, serve other large animals, or do elephants monopolize access? How much do woody plants depend on elephants as long-distance seed dispersers? How would fewer elephants—and less dung—affect the park's biodiversity? Field Conditions: Housed in cabins in the 14 000-square-kilometer park, [volunteer] teams will census large mammals at waterholes and document the form, context, and consequences of elephant interaction with other species. Using a Global Positioning System, crews will help to conduct surveys of elephant browsing, vegetation and dung. Related interests: video, photography, animal behaviour, GIS technology. 1995 teams: I: Jul 1-14; II: Jul 16-30; III: Aug 2-15; IV: Aug 17-31; V: Sep 3-15; Staging Area: Hwange Safari Lodge, Zimbabwe; Project Cost: $73 440; Your Share: $2295.
10.
For a more complete examination of lay persons' reflective `local knowledge' and their relationships with scientific experts, see: Wynne, B., 1992, Misunderstood misunderstanding: social identities and public uptake of science. Public Understanding of Science, 1, 281-304.
11.
Briefings include a personal letter from the PI, research objectives, methodology, volunteer assignments, volunteer field training, application of results, PI vitas, daily schedules, team development, accommodations (food, travel, medicine), a suggested reading list and academic articles published by the PI.
12.
Lincoln, Y. , and Guba, E., 1985, Naturalistic Inquiry (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage).
13.
Miles, M. , and Huberman, A. M., 1984, Qualitative Data Analysis (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage).
14.
For example, see Mulkay, M., 1985, The Word and the World: Explorations in the Form of Sociological Thought (London: George Allen & Unwin).
15.
Shepard, L. , 1993, Lifting the Veil: The Feminine Face of Science (Boston, MA: Shambala).
16.
Fox Keller, E. , 1983, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (New York, NY: Freeman).
17.
Freire, P. , 1970, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York, NY: Herder and Herder).
18.
This is by no means is an exhaustive interpretation of the Earthwatch phenomenon; it would be foolish not to believe that further rhetorical analyses, from different perspectives (for example, feminists, postmodernists, linguists), would derive further interpretations, as was done in Selzer, J., 1993, Understanding Scientific Prose (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press).
19.
Gross, A. , 1994, The role of rhetoric in the public understanding of science. Public Understanding of Science, 3, 3-23.
20.
Gross, A. , 1994, The role of rhetoric in the public understanding of science. Public Understanding of Science, 3, 6.
21.
This framework of understanding is from conversations with Dr Robert Silverman.
22.
Habermas argues for a procedural ethics of communicative action which values reciprocity among the people involved in a speech act, that is, everyone is able to put forth his/her viewpoint for consideration, while also acknowledging subjectivities associated with each viewpoint. Thus, volunteers and local citizens would help PIs define problems and consider alternative solutions, based on their thoughts and experiences. Habermas, J., 1981, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. I (Boston, MA: Beacon).
23.
Fuller, S. , 1993, Philosophy, Rhetoric and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press), p. 284.
24.
Popper, K. , 1950, The Open Society and Its Enemies (Oxford University Press).
25.
Feyerabend, P. , 1975, Against Method (London: New Left Books).
26.
Knorr-Cetina, K. , 1981, The Manufacture of Knowledge (New York, NY: Pergamon).
