Sexting during confinement in Spain: prevalence,motivations and predictor variables ( Sexting durante el confinamiento en España: prevalencia,motivaciones y variables predictoras )

Abstract

Spanish

SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in the mandatory isolation of the entire population, reducing the opportunities for casual sexual encounters or between partners who do not live together. However, it is plausible to assume that other forms of sexual contact like sexting are occurring. This research aimed to analyse the behaviours and motivations to engage in sexting and to examine some predictors of mental health and loneliness that could be associated with sexting during confinement. The sample consisted of 510 participants: 280 emerging adults and 230 adults. The results showed higher prevalence of sexting behaviours among emerging adults (vs. adults) and among males (vs. females). Moreover, emerging adults reported more motivations to engage in sexting. Finally, the analysis revealed that loneliness would predict engagement in sexting by emerging adults. These findings could have implications for the implementation of sexual education programmes aimed at achieving adequate social interactions associated with sexting.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agustina

J. R.

Gómez-Durán

E. L.

(2016). Risk factors associated with sexting as a preliminary framework for preventing different derivative forms of victimization. A study of factors correlated with sexting in a university sample. IDP. Revista de Internet, Derecho y Política, 22(1), 21–47.

Alonso-Ruido

Rodríguez-Castro

Lameiras-Fernández

Martínez-Román

(2018). Sexting through the Spanish adolescent discourse. Saúde e Sociedade, 27(2), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0104-12902018171835

Alpalhão

Filipe

(2020). The impacts of isolation measures against SARS-CoV-2 infection on sexual health. AIDS and Behavior, 24(8), 2258–2259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02853-x

American Psychiatric Association . (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

Arnett

J. J.

Źukauskienė

Sugimura

(2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: Implications for mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00080-7

Barrense-Dias

Berchtold

Surís

J. C.

Akre

(2017). Sexting and the definition issue. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61(5), 544–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.009

Black

D. W.

Grant

J. E.

(2014). DSM-5™ guidebook: The essential companion to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

Butler

M. H.

Pereyra

S. A.

Draper

T. W.

Leonhardt

N. D.

Skinner

K. B.

(2018). Pornography use and loneliness: A bidirectional recursive model and pilot investigation. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 44(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2017.1321601

Cano-Vindel

Muñoz-Navarro

Medrano

L. A.

Ruiz-Rodríguez

González-Blanch

Gómez-Castillo

M. D.

Capafons

Chacón

Santolaya

(2018). A computerized version of the patient health questionnaire-4 as an ultra-brief screening tool to detect emotional disorders in primary care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 234, 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.030

10.

Casey

(2012). Stress and wellbeing in Australia in 2011: a state-of-the-nation survey. Melbourne: Australian Psychological Society.

11.

Chacón-López

Caurcel-Cara

M. J.

Romero-Barriga

J. F.

(2019). Sexting en universitarios: Relación con edad, sexo y autoestima. Suma Psicológica, 26(1), 1–8.

12.

Cohen

Kamarck

Mermelstein

(1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

13.

Cooper

Quayle

Jonsson

Svedin

C. G.

(2016). Adolescents and self-taken sexual images: A review of the literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.003

14.

Crosnoe

(2000). Friendships in childhood and adolescence: The life course and new directions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(4), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.2307/2695847

15.

Currin

J. M.

Hubach

R. D.

Sanders

Hammer

T. R.

(2016). Sexting leads to “risky” sex? An analysis of sexting behaviors in a nonuniversity-based, older adult population. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 43(7), 689–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2016.1246390

16.

Dhir

Kaur

Rajala

(2018). Why do young people tag photos on social networking sites? Explaining user intentions. International Journal of Information Management, 38(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.07.004

17.

Dodaj

Sesar

Jerinić

(2020). A prospective study of high-school adolescent sexting behavior and psychological distress. The Journal of Psychology, 154(2), 111–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2019.1666788

18.

Döring

(2014). Consensual sexting among adolescents: Risk prevention through abstinence education or safer sexting? Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 8(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2014-1-9

19.

Drouin

Ross

Tobin

(2015). Sexting: A new, digital vehicle for intimate partner aggression? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001

20.

Drouin

Tobin

(2014). Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults: Relations with attachment and sexual motivations. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 412–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.001

21.

Dryer

J. A.

Lijtmaer

R. M.

(2007). Cyber-sex as twilight zone between virtual reality and virtual fantasy: Creative play space or destructive addiction? The Psychoanalytic Review, 94(1), 39–61. https://doi.org/10.1521/prev.2007.94.1.39

22.

Efrati

Amichai-Hamburger

(2019). The use of online pornography as compensation for loneliness and lack of social ties among Israeli adolescents. Psychological Reports, 122(5), 18652–1882. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118797580

23.

Frankel

A. S.

Bass

S. B.

Brown

(2018). Sexting, risk behavior, and mental health in adolescents: An examination of 2015 Pennsylvania youth risk behavior survey data. Journal of School Health, 88(3), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12596

24.

Galovan

A. M.

Drouin

McDaniel

B. T.

(2018). Sexting profiles in the United States and Canada: Implications for individual and relationship well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.017

25.

Gámez-Guadix

Almendros

Borrajo

Calvete

(2015). Prevalence and association of sexting and online sexual victimization among Spanish adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9

26.

Gámez-Guadix

De Santisteban

Resett

(2017). Sexting among Spanish adolescents: Prevalence and personality profiles. Psycothema, 29(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.222

27.

García

J. R.

Gesselman

A. N.

Siliman

S. A.

Perry

B. L.

Coe

Fisher

H. E.

(2016). Sexting among singles in the USA: Prevalence of sending, receiving, and sharing sexual messages and images. Sexual Health, 13(5), 428–435. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH15240

28.

Gassó

A. M.

Mueller-Johnson

Montiel

(2020). Sexting, online sexual victimization, and psychopathology correlates by sex: Depression, anxiety, and global psychopathology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031018

29.

Gil Llario

M. D.

Morell-Mengual

Giménez-García

Ballester-Arnal

(2020). The phenomenon of sexting among Spanish teenagers: Prevalence, attitudes, motivations, and explanatory variables. Anales de Psicología, 36(2), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.390481

30.

Gordon-Messer

Bauermeister

J. A.

Grodzinkski

Zimmerman

(2013). Sexting among young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.013

31.

Harris

R. J.

Scott

C. L.

(2002). Effects of sex in the media. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 307–331). Erlbaum

32.

Herrero

Meneses

(2006). Short Web-based versions of the perceived stress (PSS) and Center for Epidemiological studies-Depression (CESD) scales: A comparison to pencil and paper responses among internet users. Computers Human Behavior, 22(5), 830–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.007

33.

Hughes

M. E.

Waite

L. J.

Hawkley

L. C.

Cacioppo

J. T.

(2004). A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies. Research on Aging, 26(6), 655–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027504268574

34.

Jules

M. A.

Maynard

D. M.

Coulson

(2017). Emerging adults’ susceptibility to sexting influences on Facebook: Dangerous or developmental. International Psychology Bulletin, 21(3), 35–43.

35.

Kim

LaRose

Peng

(2009). Loneliness as the cause and the effect of problematic Internet use: The relationship between Internet use and psychological well-being. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(4), 451–455. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0327

36.

Klettke

Hallford

D. J.

Clancy

Mellor

D. J.

Toumbourou

J. W.

(2019). Sexting and psychological distress: The role of unwanted and coerced sexts. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 22(4), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0291

37.

Klettke

Hallford

D. J.

Mellor

D. J.

(2014). Sexting prevalence and correlates: A systematic literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.10.007

38.

Klettke

Mellor

Silva-Myles

Clancy

Sharma

M. K.

(2018). Sexting and mental health: A study of Indian and Australian young adults. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2018-2-2

39.

Wang

Xue

Zhao

Zhu

(2020). The impact of COVID-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: A study on active Weibo users. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), 2032. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062032

40.

Löwe

Wahl

Rose

Spitzer

Glaesmer

Wingenfeld

Schneider

Brähler

(2010). A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: Validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122(1–2), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.019

41.

Medrano

J. L. J.

López-Rosales

Gámez-Guadix

(2018). Assessing the links of sexting, cybervictimisation, depression, and suicidal ideation among university students. Archives of Suicide Research, 22(1), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2017.1304304

42.

Mitchell

K. J.

Finkelhor

Jones

L. M.

Wolak

(2012). Prevalence and characteristics of youth sexting: A national study. Pediatrics, 129(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1730

43.

Morelli

Bianchi

Baiocco

Pezzuti

Chirumbolo

(2016). Sexting, psychological distress and dating violence among adolescents and young adults. Psicothema, 28(2), 137–142. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.193

44.

Morgan

E. M.

(2013). Contemporary issues in sexual orientation and identity development in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812469187

45.

Mori

Cooke

J. E.

Temple

J. R.

Anderson

Rash

Madigan

(2020). The prevalence of sexting behaviors among emerging adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(4), 1103–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01656-4

46.

Muñoz-Navarro

Cano-Vindel

Ruiz-Rodríguez

Medrano

L. A.

González-Blanch

Moriana

J. A.

Capafons Bonet

Dongil-Collado

(2017). Modelo jerárquico de diagnóstico y derivación de los trastornos mentales comunes en centros de atención primaria. Una propuesta a partir del ensayo clínico PsicAP. Ansiedad y Estrés, 23(2–3), 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anyes.2017.10.002

47.

Newman

B. M.

Newman

P. R.

(2015). Theories of human development. Psychology Press.

48.

Peplau

L. A.

Perlman

(1982). Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research, and therapy. Wiley-Interscience.

49.

Perkins

A. B.

Becker

J. V.

Tehee

Mackelprang

(2014). Sexting behaviors among college students: Cause for concern? International Journal of Sexual Health, 26(2), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2013.841792

50.

Primack

B. A.

Shensa

Sidani

J. E.

Whaite

E. O.

Lin

L. Y.

Rosen

Colditz

J. B.

Radovic

Miller

(2017). Social media use and perceived social isolation among young adults in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.010

51.

Quesada

Fernández-González

Calvete

(2018). El sexteo (sexting) en la adolescencia: Frecuencia y asociación con la victimización de ciberacoso y violencia en el noviazgo. Behavioral Psychology/Psicología Conductual, 26(2), 225–242.

52.

Ringrose

Harvey

(2015). Boobs, back-off, six packs and bits: Mediated body parts, gendered reward, and sexual shame in teens‘ sexting images. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 29(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2015.1022952

53.

Rodríguez-Castro

Alonso-Ruido

Lameiras-Fernández

Faílde-Garrido

J. M.

(2018). From sexting to cybercontrol among dating teens in Spain: An analysis of their arguments. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 50(3), 170–178. https://doi.org/10.14349/rlp.2018.v50.n3.4

54.

Rodriguez-Muñoz

Antino

Ruiz-Zorrilla

Sanz-Vergel

Bakker

A. B.

(2020). Short-term trajectories of workplace bullying and its impact on strain: A latent class growth modeling approach. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 25(5), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000232

55.

Ruido

Castro

Fernández

Román

(2017). The motivations towards the sexting of the Galician teenagers. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 13, 47–51. https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.13.2280

56.

Ruvalcaba

Stephens

D. P.

Eaton

A. A.

Boyd

(2020). Hispanic women’s perceptions of teenage sexting: Qualitative analyses using a sexual scripting framework. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2020.1767805

57.

Ševčíková

(2016). Girls and boys experience with teen sexting in early and late adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 51, 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.06.007

58.

Stangor

(2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Cengage.

59.

Strassberg

Cann

Velarde

(2017). Sexting by high school students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(6), 1667–1672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0926-9

60.

Subrahmanyam

Smahel

(2010). Digital youth: The role of media in development. Springer Science & Business Media.

61.

Temple

J. R.

V. D.

Van Den Berg

Ling

Paul

J. A.

Temple

B. W.

(2014). Brief report: Teen sexting and psychosocial health. Journal of Adolescence, 37(1), 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.10.008

62.

Van Ouytsel

Van Gool

Walrave

Ponnet

Peeters

(2016). Exploring the role of social networking sites within adolescent romantic relationships and dating experiences. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.042

63.

Velarde-Mayol

Fragua-Gil

García-de-cecilia

J. M.

(2016). Validación de la escala de soledad de UCLA y perfil social en la población anciana que vive sola. SEMERGEN-Medicina de Familia, 42(3), 177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semerg.2015.05.017

64.

Walker

Sanci

Temple-Smith

(2013). Sexting: Young women’s and men’s views on its nature and origins. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(6), 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.026

65.

Walrave

Heirman

Hallam

(2014). Under pressure to sext? Applying the theory of planned behaviour to adolescent sexting. Behaviour & Information Technology, 33(1), 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2013.837099

66.

West

Lister

Hall

Crookston

Snow

Zvietcovich

West

(2014). Sexting among Peruvian adolescents. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471–2458-14-811

67.

Woodward

J. C.

(1967). Loneliness and solitude: Phenomena, incidence and factorial relationships. Agricultural Experiment Station, Project #93-11). University of Nebraska-Linc.

68.

Ybarra

Mitchell

K. J.

(2014). Sexting’ and its relation to sexual activity and sexual risk behavior in a national survey of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(6), 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.07.012

69.

Yépez-Tito

Ferragut

Blanca

M. J.

(2017). Prevalence and profile of sexting among adolescents in Ecuador. Journal of Youth Studies, 22(4), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2018.1515475