Abstract
In this time of crisis, the ‘women's issue’ is more relevant than ever. The solution does not lie in ‘a return to the home’, as some have imagined, but in the greater involvement of women in the business world. Women are as well qualified as their male counterparts, and often more qualified. Women are also better equipped in times of crisis because they are often experienced managers and organisers. It would indeed be a mistake not to involve them at this difficult point in time. But these vital developments are struggling to emerge naturally; stumbling blocks still exist that maintain a ‘glass ceiling’ which is becoming increasingly difficult to bear. Change is occurring instead due to incentives and legislation. Feminisation is still progressing too slowly in some countries, but it is occurring. Europe as a whole is experiencing this phenomenon. It is about time the situation changed. And women have begun to network together in order to facilitate these changes.
Introduction
Women represent 51.04 % of the EU's population, but they do not even hold half of the leading positions in Europe.
Equality between men and women, stipulated in the European treaties since 1957, is still to be fully implemented. The principle of equality between men and women included in the Treaty of Rome is repeated in Article 157 (1–2) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union:
Each Member State shall ensure that the principle of equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal value is applied.
For the purpose of this Article, ‘pay’ means the ordinary basic or minimum wage or salary and any other consideration, whether in cash or in kind, which the worker receives directly or indirectly, in respect of his employment, from his employer.
Equal pay without discrimination based on sex means:
that pay for the same work at piece rates shall be calculated on the basis of the same unit of measurement;
that pay for work at time rates shall be the same for the same job.
Action taken: not enough
For those Europeans, for example, the European People's Party (EPP), who are very supportive of the EU's values, there is still a huge amount of work to be done to achieve equality. Women do not understand why, in the twenty-first century, humanity, which comprises only two genders, male and female, is still dominated by only one.
The European Commission has of course adopted directives on equal treatment in the areas of employment and work, but in its annual reports it regularly notes that a great deal of inequality continues to exist and that disparity is being eradicated too slowly. Every year the European Commission reviews equality between men and women in Europe in a report (2010c) that offers a reminder that equality between men and women is one of the founding principles of Community law. The EU's goals in terms of equality comprise ensuring equal opportunities and guaranteeing that both genders are treated equally, that is, countering gender-based discrimination. In this area it has adopted a dual approach, linking specific action with gender mainstreaming, notably with an international dimension in terms of fighting poverty, access to education and health care, participation in the economy and the decision-making process, and promoting women's rights as part of human rights.
The Union has adopted 14 directives on equal treatment in the area of employment and labour, gradually obliging Member States to legislate on these issues and to bring their legislations into line. Progress has slowly been made since 1975.
The EU has also highlighted many principles of and created an agency devoted to gender issues (European Commission 2010a; European Institute for Gender Equality 2007). But in spite of all of these initiatives, total equality remains a distant goal and one which women and men have to continue working towards.
This is the sad truth that the EU has to face. Indeed, in its annual report, the Commission notes that ‘inequalities still exist … gender gaps remain and in the labour market, women are still over-represented in lower paid sectors and under-represented in decision-making positions’ (European Commission 2012e). Moreover, ‘in spite of a general trend towards greater equality in society and on the labour market, progress in terms of eradicating gender inequality is still slow’ (European Commission 2010b).
The situation is deplorable, as the following shows:
The rate of women's employment varies in the EU between 40 and 75 %, with a European average of 75.8 % for men and 62.5 % for women, that is 13 % lower for women.
If the Union wants to achieve the new goal defined in the Europe 2020 strategy, that is, a 75 % employment rate for women and men, work must be done and specific attention given to women's participation in the labour market, notably among the poorest (the elderly, single mothers, disabled women and those from ethnic minorities).
The influence of parenthood over inclusion in the labour market still varies widely depending on gender: only 65.6 % of women with children under the age of 12 are in work, compared with 90 % of men. This situation reflects an unequal distribution of family responsibilities and certainly a lack of balance between family and professional life.
More women work part-time than men; they represent more than 75 % of part-time workers in some of the least valued sectors and positions.
In Europe nearly 60 % of university graduates are women, but they represent less than 33 % of the Union's scientists and engineers, and comprise nearly 80 % of the working population in the sectors of health care, education and well-being.
There is stark gender segregation in the labour market due to the difficulty of balancing family and professional life, and the underestimation of women's competences. These are some of the complex causes of the continued wage differences between men and women.
On average women in the Union earn 17.1 % less than men per hour of work done (European Commission 2012a). This is the situation least accepted by women.
Finally, women are still under-represented in decision-making posts in the Union. According to the Commission, ‘[a]cross the EU, women are still largely outnumbered by men in positions of responsibility in all fields. The reasons for the under-representation of women in power and decision-making are multifaceted and complex’ (European Commission 2012d).
Under-representation of women
Women are still widely under-represented in posts of responsibility in the highest spheres, and this applies to the political as well as the business world.
In the national parliaments one member in four is a woman (25.37 %) with notable differences depending on the Member State (e.g. in Sweden 44.99 % are women, while in Malta they account for only 8.7 %). In the European Parliament (EP) for the period 2009–2014, women represent three Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) in ten (35.01 %) (see Appendix). In the current European Commission, there are only nine female commissioners (which represents 33.33 %). Why is real equality not possible; that is, why do women not comprise half (50 %) of the commissioners? Maybe the heads of state and government, as the leaders of Europe, should show more political will to appoint women.
The worst situation is within the European Central Bank, where there are no women on the board. This led to debate in the European Parliament on 25 October 2012 (EP 2012). A majority of MEPs have contested this situation and have asked for the appointment of at least one woman. There are women working in banks who have the ability to hold such a position.
Even greater disparities exist in the business world: the administrative boards of the biggest European companies listed on the stock exchange include, on average, one woman in every 10 members and barely 3 % have female chief executive officers (CEOs) (see Appendix). Following in the steps of Norway, which in 2004 adopted a law obliging companies to ensure that at least 40 % of their board members were women, several Member States have also adopted legislation to take the situation forwards. In 2011 France adopted an equivalent law (Loi n°2011-103 du 27 janvier 20112011), as did Belgium (Chambre des Représentants de Belgique 2011), and other countries may follow suit. However, the process is still too slow.
Vice-President Viviane Reding, Commissioner for Justice, Fundamental Rights and Citizenship, recently launched some initiatives on this issue, notably including, a call to sign a European charter aimed at increasing the presence of women on administrative boards (European Commission 2011c). In its report, More Women in Senior Positions: Key to Economic Stability and Growth (European Commission 2010c), the European Commission argues that the economy would benefit from both women and men being duly represented in high-ranking positions, and shows that there is a positive correlation between the share of women in positions of responsibility and companies’ results. Since progress is poor and slow, Commissioner Reding has already said that she will put forward a new directive on this issue, probably mid-November 2012. Although this is still a project (nothing precise or official has been stated about the text), the initiative has already been contested by nine Member States (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands and the UK) which are against quotas (‘Nine EU states’ 2012), legal binding obligations or sanctions (‘Quotas on board’ 2012). This challenge shows that some elements of society are still reluctant to make equality between men and women a reality. Indeed it seems to illustrate their narrow-mindedness. The time when women stayed at home with the children, in the kitchen or at church is part of the past.
Some statistics
Last year, the Robert Schuman Foundation undertook an online survey of 3,464 people (Women for Europe and Citizens Initiative 2011) to find out what their expectations were, particularly with regard to Europe. Most of the people who answered this survey were women (72 %) aged 26–59 years (62 %), married or living with a partner (64 %), and had children (63 %).
The general feeling which emerged from this study was the desire for progress in the area of gender equality and parity: equal work, equal pay! (European Commission 2012b, c, f).
Seventy-five per cent of those who answered the online survey believe that wage equality is an area that is inadequately covered by European policies, while 32 % believe that this is true of equal opportunities at work. Thirty per cent want equality between girls and boys to be implemented as early on as possible in schooling and university education.
Women do not want to feel that they are being penalised because of maternity leave and gaps in their career. Greater conciliation between professional and family life is a recurrent expectation on the part of 46 % of those interviewed, who also expect more childcare facilities (private nurseries, incompany nurseries, etc.), the right to longer maternity leave if desired, the right to return to one's post after maternity leave and the opportunity for women to adjust their working hours to fit around having a family.
Women also hope that access to positions of responsibility will be fostered in companies and in public life. Sixty-two percent believe that the level of inclusion of women in the EU's institutions and in public life is inadequate. They want greater inclusion, and a greater female presence in management positions in business.
Conclusion
At the beginning of the twenty-first century the founding principles of the Community, which have been included in the treaties since 1957, such as the principle of equality between men and women, have not yet been implemented in full. Many obstacles must still be removed, notably:
reducing and eliminating male–female inequality in terms of women's inclusion in the labour market;
reducing and eliminating persistent wage gaps between men and women;
ensuring real balance between the sexes in positions of responsibility (i.e. in companies, administrations and politics);
ensuring a better balance between family and professional life; and
eliminating gender-associated stereotypes.
Women should harbour no illusions. They will achieve nothing if they do not try to counteract and struggle against red tape, habits, stereotypes and the other clichés that are still rife today. It is not a question of bringing women into opposition with men; they are complementary. On the contrary, it is a question of ensuring that there is a better balance between the two sexes. Given the challenges (economic crisis, globalisation, ageing etc.) that await us, it will certainly take both sides to face and overcome them. There are many hurdles, and mentalities change slowly. But if nothing changes of its own accord, then incentives, and even binding measures, will win through. At the same time, women have created networks all over the world such as the Women's Forum. They have understood how important it is to create these networks in order to meet other women, share experiences, promote and take their career to the top.
The EPP, which is one of the strongest parties and a leading political force within the EU (with 16 heads of state or prime ministers out of a total of 27 Member States, i.e. 60 %), would be well advised to take on such initiatives in order to promote the role of women in society. But, with just 3 women out of 13 in the party's presidency (EPP Congress 2012), 3 women out of 12 commissioners from the EPP and 92 women out of 271 MEPs (the largest political group within the EP), it must first make changes in its own structure before it can become a model for others to emulate.