This research examines the relationship between ambiguity acceptance and customer and organizational outcomes within the Six Sigma improvement project context. Results find a curvilinear relationship between open communication and customer outcomes for project leaders. Results of multiple regression find a significant positive relationship between open communication and organization outcomes, as well as a significant positive relationship between ambiguity acceptance and customer and organizational outcomes for team leaders, while there is a significant positive relationship between ambiguity acceptance and customer and organizational outcomes for team members. Theoretical and practical implications are examined.
AtkinsonR., CrawfordL., & WardS. (2006). Fundamental uncertainties in projects and the scope of project management. International Journal of Project Management, 24(8), 687–698.
3.
AusburnL. J., & AusburnF. B. (1978). Cognitive styles: Some information and implications for instructional design. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 26(8), 337–345.
4.
BaldoniJ. (2004). Powerful leadership communication. Leader to Leader, 32, 20–24.
5.
BaruchY., & HoltomB. C. (2008). Survey response rate levels and trends in organizational research. Human Relations, 61(8), 11–39.
6.
BelassiW., & TukelO. I. (1996). A new framework for determining critical success/failure factors in projects. International Journal of Project Management, 14(3), 141–151.
7.
BertelsT. (2003). Rath and Strong's Six Sigma leadership handbook.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
8.
BesnerC., & HobbsB. (2006). The perceived value and potential contribution of project management practices to project success. Project Management Journal, 37(3), 37.
9.
BestJ. (2008). Ambiguity, uncertainty, and risk: Rethinking indeterminacy. International Political Sociology, 2(4), 355–374.
10.
BrunE., SaetreA. S., & GjelsvikM. (2009). Classification of ambiguity in new product development projects. European Journal of Innovation Management, 12(1), 62–85.
11.
BrymanA. (1992). Charisma and leadership in organizations.London, England: Sage.
12.
BrymanA. (1999). Leadership in organizations. In CleggS. R., HardyC., & NordW. R. (Eds.), Managing organizations: Current issues (pp. 26–42). London, England: Sage.
13.
BudnerS. (1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable. Journal of Personality, 30(1), 29–50.
ChanA. P. C., ScottD., & ChanA. P. L. (2004). Factors affecting the success of a construction project. Journal of Construction Engineering, 130(1), 153–155.
16.
CongerJ. A., & KanungoR. N. (1988). Behavioral dimensions of charismatic leadership. In CongerJ. A., & KanungoR. N. (Eds.), Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organizational effectiveness (pp. 78–97). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
17.
CookT. D., CampbellD. T., & DayA. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for field settings.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
18.
Cooke-DaviesT. (2002). The real success factors in projects. International Journal of Project Management, 20(3), 185–198.
19.
CumminsR. A., & GulloneE. (2000). Why we should not use 5-point Likert scales: The case for subjective quality of life measurement. In Proceedings, Second International Conference on Quality of Life in Cities (pp. 74–93). Singapore: National University of Singapore.
20.
De MeyerA., LochC. H., & PichM. T. (2002). Managing project uncertainty: From variation to chaos. MIT Sloan Management Review, 43(2), 59–67.
21.
DollingerM. J., SaxtonT., & GoldenP.A. (1995). Intolerance of ambiguity and the decision to form an alliance. Psychological Reports, 77(3), 1197–1198.
DvirD., LipovitskyS., ShenharA., & TishlerA. (1998). In search of project classification: A non-universal approach to project success factors. Research Policy, 27(9), 915–935.
24.
DvirD., RazT., & ShenharA. J. (2003). An empirical analysis of the relationship between project planning and project success. International Journal of Project Management, 21(2), 88–95.
25.
EisenbergE. M., & WittenM. G. (1987). Reconsidering openness in organizational communication. Academy of Management Review, 12, 418–426.
26.
EllingerA. D., EllingerA. E., & KellerS. B. (2003). Supervisory coaching behavior, employee satisfaction, and warehouse employee per romance: A dyadic perspective in the distribution industry. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14, 435–458.
27.
El-SabaaS. (2001). The skills and career path of an effective project manager. International Journal of Project Management, 19(1), 1–7.
28.
FinchP. (2003). Applying the Slevin-Pinto project implementation profile to an information systems project. Project Management Journal, 34(3), 32–39.
29.
FortuneJ., & WhiteD. (2006). Framing of project critical success factors by a systems model. International Journal of Project Management, 24(1), 53–65.
FroneM. R. (1990). Intolerance of ambiguity as a moderator of the occupational role stress–strain relationship: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 309–320.
32.
FurnhamA. (1994). A content, correlational and factor analytic study of four tolerance of ambiguity questionnaires. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(3), 403–410.
33.
FurnhamA., & RibchesterT. (1995). Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the concept, its measurement and applications. Current Psychology, 14(3), 179–199.
34.
GhirardatoP., & MarinacciM. (2002). Ambiguity made precise: A comparative foundation. Journal of Economic Theory, 102(2), 251–289.
35.
GhoshD. (1994). Tolerance for ambiguity, risk preference, and negotiator effectiveness. Decision Sciences, 25(2), 263–280.
36.
GillardS., & JohansenJ. (2004). Project management communication: A systems approach. Journal of Information Science, 30(1), 23–29.
37.
GlobersonS. (2002). The impact of the project manager on project management planning processes. Project Management Journal, 33(3), 58–64.
38.
GorisJ. R., VaughtB. C., & PettitJ. D. (2000). Effects of communication direction on job performance and satisfaction: A moderated regression analysis. Journal of Business Communication, 37(4), 348–369.
39.
GrahamS., WedmanJ. F., & Garvin-KesterB. (1994). Manager coaching skills: What makes a good coach?Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(2), 81–94.
40.
HällgrenM., & Maaninen-OlssonE. (2005). Deviations, ambiguity and uncertainty in a project-intensive organization. Project Management Journal, 36(3), 17–26.
41.
HamlinR. G. (2004). In support of universalistic models of managerial and leadership effectiveness: Implications for HRD research and practice. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15(2), 189–215.
42.
HatcherL., & StepanskiE. J. (1994). A step-by-step approach to using the SAS system for univariate and multivariate statistics.Cary, NC: SAS Institute.
43.
HellervikL. W., & DavisB. L. (1984). Improving managerial effectiveness: A handbook of development suggestions.Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions.
44.
HirstG., & MannL. (2004). A model of R&D leadership and team communication: The relationship with project performance. R&D Management, 34(2), 147–160.
45.
HoeglM., & GemuendenH. G. (2001). Teamwork quality and the success of innovative projects: A theoretical concept and empirical review. Organization Science, 12(4), 435–449.
46.
HofstedeG. (2001). Culture's consequence: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across cultures (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
47.
HyvariI. (2006). The success of projects in different organizational conditions. Project Management Journal, 37(4), 31–41.
48.
JaafariA. (2001). Management of risks, uncertainties and opportunities on projects: Time for a fundamental shift. International Journal of Project Management, 19(2), 89–101.
49.
JablinF. M. (1979). Superior-subordinate communication: The state of the art. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1201–1222.
50.
JonassenD. H., & GrabowskiB. L. (1993). Handbook of individual differences, learning, and instruction.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
51.
JugdevK., & MüllerR. (2005). A retrospective look at our evolving understanding of project success. Project Management Journal, 36(4), 19–31.
52.
JuranJ. M. (1989). Juran on leadership for quality.New York, NY: Free Press.
53.
KaissiA. K. H. (2005). Leadership influence styles: Investigating their effect on Six Sigma change program implementation in a high-tech industry (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Phoenix, Detroit, MI.
54.
KellerR. T., & HollandW. E. (1983). Communicators and innovators in research and development organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 742–749.
55.
KirtonM. J. (1981). A reanalysis of two scales of tolerance for ambiguity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 45(4), 407–414.
56.
KivimakiM., LansisalmiH., ElovainioM., HeikkilaA., LindstromK., HarisaloR., … PuolimatkaL. (2000). Communication as a determinant of organizational innovation. R&D Management, 30(1), 33–42.
LaneM. S., & KlenkeK. (2004). The ambiguity tolerance interface: A modified social cognitive model for leading under uncertainty. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 10(3), 69–81.
59.
LevinR. I., & KirkpatrickC. A. (1966). Planning and control with the project evaluation and review technique.New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
60.
LinJ., ChaiK. H., BrombacherA. C., & WongY. S. (2009). Optimal overlapping and functional interaction in product development. European Journal of Operational Research, 196(3), 1158–1169.
61.
LongbothamG. J. (2000). The relationship of leadership, environmental, and team factors, to process improvement team success: An ex-post facto study (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA.
62.
LooR. (2002). Working towards best practices in project management: A Canadian study. International Journal of Project Management, 20(2), 93–98.
63.
LovelaceK., ShapiroD. L., & WeingartL. R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams' innovativeness and constraint adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 779–793.
64.
LysonskiS., & AndrewsJ. C. (1990). Effects of moderating variables on production managers' behavior. Psychological Reports, 66, 295–306.
65.
MalhotraY. (1998). Business process redesign: An overview. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 26(3), 210–223.
66.
MarchJ. G., & OlsenJ. P. (1975). The uncertainty of the past: Organizational learning under ambiguity. European Journal of Political Research, 3(2), 147–171.
67.
MarksM., ZaccaroS. J., & MathieuJ. E. (2000). Performance implications of team leaders briefings and team interaction training to team adaptation to novel environments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), 971–986.
68.
MartinJ. (1992). Cultures in organizations: Three perspectives.New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
69.
MontgomeryB. (1981). Verbal intimacy as a behavioral indicator of open communication content. Communication Quarterly, 30(1), 28–34.
70.
MulenburgG. M. (1999). The characteristics of project managers: An exploration of completed projects in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Golden Gate University, San Francisco, CA.
71.
MunnsA. K., & BjeirmiB. F. (1996). The role of project management in achieving project success. International Journal of Project Management, 14(2), 81–88.
72.
NuttP. C. (1993). Organizational publicness and its implications for strategic management. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 3(2), 209–231.
73.
ParkS., McLeanG. N., & YangB. (2008, February). Revision and validation of an instrument measuring managerial coaching skills in organizations. Paper presented at the Academy of Human Resource Development International Research Conference in the Americas, Panama City, FL.
74.
ParkerG. M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business strategy.San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
75.
Patrashkova-VolzdoskaR. R., McCombS. A., & GreenS. G. (2003). Examining a curvilinear relationship between communication frequency and team performance in cross-functional project teams. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 50(3), 262–269.
76.
PerminovaO., GustafssonM., & WiksromK. (2008). Defining uncertainty in projects: Merging theory and practice. International Journal of Project Management, 26, 73–79.
77.
PetersonD. B., & HicksM. D. (1996). Leaders as coach: Strategies for coaching and developing others.Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions International.
78.
PichM. T., LochC. H., & De MeyerA. (2002). On uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity in project management. Management Science, 48(8), 1008–1023.
79.
PintoJ. K., & PrescottJ. E. (1988). Variations in critical success factors over the stages in the project life cycle. Journal of Management, 14(1), 5–16.
80.
PintoJ. K., & SlevinD. P. (1987). Critical factors in successful project implementation. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 34(1), 22–27.
81.
PintoM. B., & PintoJ. K. (1990). Project team communication and cross-functional cooperation in new program development. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 9(3), 200–212.
82.
PodsakoffP. M., & OrganD. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544.
83.
PowellT. C. (1995). Quality management's competitive advantage: A review and empirical study. Strategic Management Journal, 16(1), 15–37.
84.
PowellT. C., LovalloD., & CaringalC. (2006). Causal ambiguity, management perception, and firm performance. Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 175–196.
85.
RepenningN., & StermanJ. (2001). Nobody ever gets credit for fixing problems that never happened. California Management Review, 43, 64–88.
86.
SamsonD., & TerziovskiM. (1999). The relationship between total quality management practices and operational performance. Journal of Operations Management, 17(4), 393–409.
87.
SarinS., & McDermottC. (2003). The effect of team leader characteristics on learning, knowledge application, and performance of cross-functional new product development teams. Decision Sciences, 34, 707–739.
ShenharA. J., DvirD., LevyO., & MaltzA. C. (2001). Project success: A multidimensional strategic concept. Long Range Planning, 34(6), 699–725.
90.
SimoninB. L. (1999). Transfer of marketing know-how in international strategic alliances: An empirical investigation of the role and antecedents of knowledge ambiguity. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(3), 463–490.
91.
SuhrD. (2006, March). Exploratory or confirmatory factor analysis? Paper presented at the 2006 SAS Global Forum, San Francisco, CA.
92.
SwensonJ. (1999). Communication. In LangdonD. G., WhitesideK. S., & McKennaM. M. (Eds.), Intervention resource guide: 50 performance improvement tools (pp. 91–97). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
93.
TeganoD. W. (1990). Relationship of tolerance for ambiguity and playfulness and creativity. Psychological Reports, 66(3), 1047–1056.
94.
TeohH. Y., & FooS. L. (1997). Moderating effects of tolerance for ambiguity and risk taking propensity on the role conflict-perceived performance relationship: Evidence from Singaporean entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 12(1), 67–81.
95.
ThamhainH. J. (1996). Enhancing innovative performance of self-directed teams. Engineering Management Journal, 8(3), 31–39.
96.
ThiteM. (1999). Identifying key characteristics of technical project leadership. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 20(5), 253–261.
97.
ToneyF., & PowerR. (1997). Best practices of project management groups in large organizations.Upper Darby, PA: Project Management Institute.
98.
TurnerJ. R. (1999). The handbook of project-based management: Improving the processes for achieving strategic objectives.London, England: McGraw-Hill.
99.
WagemanR. (2001). How leaders foster self-managing team effectiveness: Design choices versus hand-on coaching. Organization Science, 12(5), 559–577.
100.
WardS., & ChapmanC. (2003). Transforming project risk management into project uncertainty management. International Journal of Project Management, 21(1), 97–105.
101.
WhiteD., & FortuneJ. (2002). Current practice in project management–An empirical study. International Journal of Project Management, 20(1), 1–11.
102.
ZaccaroS. J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 6–16.
103.
ZimmererT. W., & YasinM. M. (1998). A leadership profile of American project managers. Project Management Journal, 29(1), 31–38.
